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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



ESSENTIALS 

OF 

BUSINESS ENGLISH 



BY 

BENJAMIN J. CAMPBELL 

AUTHOR OF 

"modern business punctuation" 
"drills in the use of correct English" 

AND 

BRUCE L. VASS 



BUSINESS ENGLISH PUBLISHING COMPANY 
JACKSON, MICHIGAN 






Copyright 1915 

BY 

BUSINESS ENGLISH PUBLISHING COMPANY 




CU414756 



PREFACE 



In the preparation of this text, the authors have made 
no attempt at originality, except as to the manner of pre- 
senting the subject. They have kept uppermost in mind 
the object to be attained — the ability on the part of the 
student to use correct English. With this end in view, 
the material has been selected from various sources, and 
so modified and arranged as to produce this result with 
the least expenditure of time on the part of the student, 
and a minimum of work on the part of the teacher. 

No attempt has been made to produce an exhaustive 
treatise for the few, but rather a book of essentials for the 
many; nor has any effort been made to speculate upon the 
technical phases of the subject. The student's need is not 
theory and comment, but rather the rules and principles, 
with their proper application. It is utterly useless to learn 
rules unless one learns to apply them. 

The Parts of Speech. — In Part I the Parts of Speech 
are clearly defined, and their use fully illustrated by care- 
fully selected sentences. The student is here taught that 
the part of speech to which a word belongs is determined 
by its use in the sentence. The work in this chapter lays 
the foundation for the study of the sentence, treated in 
Part II. 

Part III treats of the Properties and Syntax of the Parts 
of Speech. The value of the study of Syntax can not be 
overestimated, for upon a thorough mastery of it depends, 
in a large measure, the student's ability to use correct 



PREFACE 

English. The rules are clearly stated; each rule is illus- 
trated by an example; and abundant exercises are given 
to thoroughly ground the student in the application of these 
rules. 

How to Write Clearly.— In this chapter no attempt 
has been made to give an exhaustive treatise of the subject 
of Rhetoric, but rather to give sufficient rules and illus- 
trations to enable the student to avoid most of the faulty 
constructions. 

Choice of Words. — This section has been added to 
give the student a drill in the discrimination of those words 
most commonly confused either in the use or in the spelling. 
The words treated are of so practical a nature that we 
believe this department will be recognized as a valuable 
feature of the book. 

Punctuation. — The rules of Punctuation are clearly 
stated, and are sufficiently comprehensive to give the 
student a good knowledge of the subject. 



CONTENTS 



Page 

Adjective, defined 5 

Classes of Adjectives 6 

Comparison of Adjectives * 80 

Syntax of Adjectives 81 

Adverb, defined 15 

Classes of Adverbs 16 

Comparison of Adverbs 85 

Position of Adverbs 86 

Adjective or Adverb 87 

Anybody, number of 60 

Anybody else, possessive of 52 

Anyone, number of 60 

Anyone else, possessive of 52 

Appositive, defined 24 

Clause, defined 24 

Noun Clause 30 

Adjective Clause 31 

Adverbial Clause 32 

Complements 12 

Direct Object 12 

Attribute Complement 12 

Indirect Object 13 

Objective Complement , 14 

Conjunction, defined 19 

Classes of Conjunctions 19 

List of Coordinate Conjunctions 19 

List of Subordinate Conjunctions 20 

Each, number of 60 

Either, number of 60 

Ellipsis 36 

Everybody, number of l 60 

Everybody else, possessive of : 52 

Everyone, number of 60 

Everyone else, possessive 52 

Infinitive, defined 40 

Interjection, defined 21 

It, expletive 26 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Lie, lay 72 

Neither, number of 60 

Nobody, number of 60 

Nobody else, possessive of 52 

Noun, denned 3 

Classes of Nouns 3 

Number 45 

Gender 48 

Person . 49 

Case 50 

Syntax of Nouns 51 

Order of Elements ! 25 

Participle, denned 42 

Phrase, denned 24 

Prepositional Phrase 24 

Infinitive Phrase 40 

Participial Phrase 43 

Preposition, defined 17 

List of Prepositions 18 

Syntax of Prepositions 92 

Pronoun, defined 7 

Classes of Pronouns 7 

Number 45 

Gender 48 

Person 49 

Case 50 

Declension of Pronouns 57 

Syntax of Pronouns 58 

Compound Personal Pronouns 62 

Sentence, defined 1 

Classes of Sentences as to Use 2 

Declarative 2 

Interrogative 2 

Imperative 2 

Exclamatory 2 

Classes of Sentences as to Form 27 

Simple Sentences 27 

Complex Sentences 30 

Compound Sentences 33 

Shall, will 72 

Should, would 73 

Sit, set 71 

Somebody, number of 60 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Somebody else, possessive of 52 

There, expletive 26 

Verb, defined 10 

Classes of Verbs 11 

Voice 64 

Mode 64 

Tense 65 

Person 67 

Number 67 

List of Irregular Verbs 68 

Syntax of Verbs 74 

Verbal, defined 38 

Classes of Verbals 38 

Verbal Noun 38 

Infinitive 40 

Participle 42 

CHOICE OF WORDS 

Nouns 53 

Verbs 78 

Adjectives and Adverbs 88 

Miscellaneous Words 93 

Miscellaneous Errors 96 

HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 

Clearness, defined 99 

Adjective and Adverb, position of 99 

Correlatives, position of. ... 101 

Only, position of 99 

Other, in comparison 103 

Participle, express subject of 100 

Participle, position of 100 

Personal Pronoun, antecedent of 100 

Phrases and Clauses, position of 100 

Relative Pronoun, position of 100 

Repetition of Preposition 101 

Repetition of the Sign of the Infinitive 101 

Repetition of the Article 101 

Repetition of that introducing Noun Clauses 102 

Repetition of Subject 103 

Repetition of Auxiliary 103 

Subordinate Clauses, position of 102 



CONTENTS 

PUNCTUATION 

Page 

Capitalization 109 

The Comma Ill 

Series of Words or Phrases Ill 

Transposed Phrases and Clauses Ill 

Parenthetical Words and Phrases 112 

Intermediate Expressions 112 

Nouns in Apposition 113 

Nouns of Address . 113 

Compound Sentences 113 

Adverbial and Relative Clauses 114 

Omission of the Verb 114 

Complex Subject 114 

Quotations 115 

Ambiguity 115 

Words or Phrases in Pairs 115 

Contrasted Words or Phrases 115 

The Semicolon 115 

The Colon 116 

The Period ,117 

The Interrogation Point 117 

The Exclamation Point 118 

The Dash 118 

The Quotation Marks 118 

The Hyphen 119 



THE SENTENCE 

1. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a 
complete thought. 

Examples: Knowledge is power. Labor conquers all 
things. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

2. Every sentence is composed of two parts : a subject 
and a predicate. 

3. The subject of a sentence is the word or group of 
words that names that about which something is asserted. 

4. The predicate of a sentence is the word or group of 
words that asserts something about the subject. 

Exercise 1 

Name the subject and the predicate of the following 
sentences : 

Model : The greatest truths are sometimes the simplest. 

The greatest truths is the subject, because it names that about 
which the assertion is made ; are sometimes the simplest is the predicate, 
because it asserts something about the subject. 

1. They came without delay. 

2. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

3. A small leak may sink a great ship. 

4. The way of the transgressor is hard. 

5. The path of duty leads to happiness. 

6. The fountain of truth will never fail. 

7. The children were playing in the street. 

8. The path of industry is the path of success. 

9. The dew is on the daisies and the clover. 

10. A ray of light shone through the window. 

11. The lights of the church shone through the door. 

12. The mold of a man's fortune is in his own hands. 

13. Simplicity in dress and manners indicates a refined mind. 



2 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Classes of Sentences 

5. With respect to use, sentences are divided into four 
classes : declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclam- 
atory. 

6. A declarative sentence is a sentence that asserts 
something. 

Example: Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be 
sought. 

7. An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a 
question. 

Example: Can gray hairs make folly venerable? 

8. An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses 
a command or an entreaty. 

Example: Never put off until tomorrow what you can 
do today. 

9. An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses 
strong emotion. 

Example: How are the mighty fallen! 

Exercise 2 

Tell whether the following sentences are declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory, and what 
punctuation mark should follow each sentence: 

1. Whom did you call for 

2. How swiftly pass a thousand years 

3. The day is cold and dark and dreary 

4. O, bury me not in the deep, deep sea 

5. Life is an enigma that none can solve 

6. Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right 

7. What real service did you render yesterday 

8. Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep 

9. How blessings brighten as they take their flight 

10. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth 

11. What soft, beautiful colors are seen in a winter landscape 



THE NOUN 3 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

10. It is a remarkable fact that while the English 
language contains more than three hundred thousand 
words, each differing from every other in meaning, they 
may be divided, according to their use in sentences, into 
eight classes. These classes are called the parts of speech. 

11. The names of the parts of speech are: nouns, 
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, con- 
junctions, and interjections. 

THE NOUN 

12. A noun is the name of anything. 

13. It may be — 

1. The name of a person, place, or thing; as, James, 
New York, book. 

2. The name of some attribute that we can see, hear, 
taste, smell, or feel; as, beauty, melody, sweetness, odor, 
pain. 

3. The name of some quality or condition that may 
be simply thought of; as, diligence, gentleness, persever- 
ance, happiness, faith. 

4. The name of an action; as, walking, riding, talking, 
singing. 

Classes of Nouns 

14. All objects of the same kind have the same general 
name. To distinguish a particular object from others of 
the class to which it belongs, it is given a special name 
not applicable to the rest of its class. Thus, the name 
city is applicable to any large town, while Boston is the 
name of a particular city; hence, there are two kinds of 
nouns — the names of classes and the names of individuals. 

15. Nouns are divided into two classes: common and 
proper. 



4 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

16. A common noun is a name that applies to any one 
of a class of persons or things; as, boy, city, lake, mountain. 

While the name geranium does not apply to all flowers, it does 
apply to all of the class of flowers called geraniums; hence, it is a 
common noun. 

17. A proper noun is a name given to an individual 
object to distinguish it from others of the same class; as, 
James, Chicago, Superior, Pacific. 

While James is the name of a large number of boys, it does not 
apply to all boys; hence, it is a proper noun. 

Exercise 3 

Give the common nouns corresponding to the following 
proper nouns : 

Chicago Alps France Atlantic 

Indiana Esther Amazon Suez 

Charles Monday August Mediterranean 

Subclasses of Common Nouns 

18. Common nouns are divided into four classes : 
abstract, collective, verbal, and class. 

19. An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a con- 
dition, or an action, considered apart from the object to 
which it belongs ; as, whiteness, slavery, deception. 

20. Abstract nouns are formed — 

1. From adjectives ; as, goodness from good; honesty 
from honest; sweetness from sweet; truth from true. 

2. From verbs; as, deception from deceive; knowledge 
from know; belief from believe; growth from grow. 

3. From nouns ; as, friendship from friend; heroism 
from hero; childhood from child; infancy from infant. 

21. A collective noun is the name of a collection of 
persons or things ; as, army, jury, flock, audience. 



THE ADJECTIVE 5 

22. A verbal noun is a noun ending in -ing that is the 
name of an action or state of being; as, singing, standing, 
seeing, believing. 

23. A class noun is any common noun that is not a 
collective, an abstract, or a verbal noun; as, book, flower, 
house. 

Exercise 4 

Copy the italicized nouns, arranging abstract nouns in 
the first column, collective in the second, verbal in the 
third, and class in the fourth: 

1. If you wish to enjoy the pleasure of resting, you must work. 
2. The shepherd was guarding his flock. 3. Running is healthful 
exercise. 4. He was noted for his nobility of character and for his 
reverence of sacred things. 5. We saw a group of boys in the yard. 
6. Simplicity in dress and manners indicates a refined mind. 7. The 
herd were quietly grazing. 8. Hunting, fishing, and rowing occupied 
most of my time during vacation. 9. The jury asked for further 
instructions. 10. Kindness is commendable. 11. Tecumseh was the 
chief of a tribe of Indians. 12. Giving is better than hoarding. 13. The 
audience was large and enthusiastic. 14. The board will meet tonight. 
15. Switzerland is noted for the beauty of its scenery. 16. The class 
will meet next Monday. 17. Through the clouds of today shines the 
brightness of tomorrow. 18. The committee is ready to report. 19. He 
gave us some good advice about honor and obedience. 20. The door- 
step to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge of our own ignorance. 
21. Our team has not been defeated this year. 22. Geniality and 
courtesy are not small factors in smoothing the rough way of life. 23. Our 
greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall. 
24. Industry, honesty, temperance, and frugality are among the cardinal 
virtues. 

THE ADJECTIVE 

24. An adjective is a word that is used to modify or 
limit a noun or pronoun. 

Examples : A high tower ; a rough road ; a beautiful 
flower ; this book ; two days. 



6 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Classes of Adjectives 

25. Adjectives are divided into two classes: descriptive 
and limiting. 

26. A descriptive adjective is an adjective that expresses 
quality or kind; as, a good book; rough roads; beautiful 
flowers ; a fine building. 

A descriptive adjective derived from a proper noun is called a 
proper adjective; as, the English language; the American Indian. 
Proper adjectives should usually begin with a capital letter. 

27. A limiting adjective is an adjective that expresses 
number or quantity, or that points out; as, two weeks; 
sufficient funds; this book. 

28. A limiting adjective may be used — 

1. Merely to point out; as, this, that, these, those, the, 
an, yonder. 

2. To express a definite number; as, one, five, forty, 
ninety. 

3. To express an indefinite number or quantity; as, 
several, many, any, much, some, few. 

4. To show the order in a series ; as, first, second, fifth. 

The limiting adjectives the and an or a are called articles. The 
is called the definite article, because it is used to point out some par- 
ticular person or thing. An or a is called the indefinite article, because 
it is used to point out any one of a class. 

Exercise 5 

Copy, on Form 5, the adjectives and the words they 
modify (Omit the articles) : 

1. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 2. It cuts both 
ways like a two-edged sword. 3. You will find him in the seventh 
room on the third floor. 4. A good name is rather to be chosen than 
great riches. 5. This pencil and those pens are mine. 6. A small 
leak will sink a great ship. 7. Much wisdom often goes with the 
fewest words. 8. I was there several times. 9. A little learning is 



THE PRONOUN 7 

a dangerous thing. 10. There were five members present. 11. A 
soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stirreth up anger. 
12. The moonlight was streaming through a low window in one gable, 
and a fainter light came through a corresponding window in the 
opposite end. 13. Great heaps of yellow apples lay under the trees. 
14. The lad saw in this demand for the lowest work at the highest 
prices his golden opportunity. 15. The next day the convention 
took a formal vote upon the resolution. 18. If we had more time, 
there would be less haste. 

THE PRONOUN 

29. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. 

Pronouns are used to avoid the monotonous repetition of nouns. 
Thus, it is much more pleasing to the ear to say, "Ralph put his 
book into his desk," than to say, "Ralph put Ralph's book into Ralph's 
desk." 

30. The word for which a pronoun stands, or to which 
it refers, is called the antecedent, 

Classes of Pronouns 

31. Pronouns are divided into four classes: personal, 
relative, interrogative, and adjective. 

32. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its 
form whether it represents the person speaking, the person 
spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

Example : We know that both you and he will like the 
subject when you understand it better. Here we is used in 
place of the speaker ; you, in place of the person spoken to ; 
he, in place of the person spoken of ; and it, in place of the 
thing spoken of. 

33. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an 
antecedent and at the same time joins to it a clause. 

Example : He who would seek for pearls must dive below. 
In this sentence, ivho is used to join the clause, who would 
seek for pearls, to he, the antecedent of the relative, and 



8 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

is also the subject of the dependent clause, who would seek 
for pearls. 

34. The relative pronouns are who (whose, whom), 
which, that, and what, with their compound forms, whoever, 
whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. 

Sometimes the antecedent of a pronoun is not expressed; as, 
"Who steals my purse steals trash." Here person or he, understood, 
is the antecedent of who. 

The relative what is equivalent to that which or the thing which, 
and hence combines within itself both the antecedent and the relative. 
Thus, "Take what you want," is equivalent to "Take that which (the 
thing which) you want." 

35. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in 
asking a question. 

Examples : Who is that ? Which of us shall go ? What 
did he say? 

36. The interrogative pronouns are who (whose, whom), 
which, what. 

Which and what are sometimes used as limiting adjectives ; as, 
" Which book do you like the better?" (l What time is it?" 

37. An adjective pronoun is a word that may be used 
either as a pronoun or as a limiting adjective. 

Example : Few shall part where many meet. 

38. The principal adjective pronouns are one, none, 
some, any, both, few, each, either, neither, other, several, 
many, all, this, these, that, and those. 

Most of these words may be used either as adjectives or as pronouns. 
If the word limits a noun that is expressed, it is an adjective; if it 
stands for a noun that is omitted, it is a pronoun. Thus, in the sen- 
tence, "Each person must do his share," each is an adjective, modi- 
fying the noun person. But in the sentence, "Each must do his share," 
each is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun person. 

Exercise 6 

Copy the italicized pronouns, arranging personal pro- 
nouns in the first column, relative in the second, interrog- 



THE PRONOUN 9 

ative in the third, and adjective in the fourth, and be pre- 
pared to tell what each stands for: 

1. Venerable men ! You have come down to us from a former 
generation. 2. The lady was not at home when her friends called, 
so she did not see them. 3. A city that is set on a hill can not be hid. 

4. What shall J do with this? 5. Few can sing as well as she. 6. Stu- 
dents who master their lessons merit the approbation of their teacher. 
7. Who is that? 8. Both are acceptable. 9. He that is not with me 
is against me. 10. As we approached the eastern end of the lake, 
its scenery grew far more beautiful. 11. Trust men, and they will be 
true to you; treat them greatly, and they will show themselves great. 
12. The song that we hear with our ears is only the song that is sung 
in our hearts. 13. As he entered the city, he noticed the many changes 
that had taken place since his last visit. 14. There were present 
laborers, mechanics, and merchants, who doubted the arguments he 
offered. 15. If thine enemy hunger, give him bread to eat; if he be 
thirsty, give him water to drink. 16. There is the man whom you 
want to see. 17. There were rows of houses which he had never seen 
before, and those which had been his familiar haunts had disappeared. 

18. Which do you prefer? 19. Whom do you wish to see? 20. The 
hall was open to all who came, on condition that the guest should 
leave his weapon at the door. 21. The world will little note nor long 
remember what we say here; but it can never forget what they did 
here. 

Exercise 7 

Tell whether the italicized words are nouns, pronouns, 
or adjectives, and what the adjectives modify: 

1. All men are better than they seem. 2. All is well that ends well. 
3. Each did his duty. 4. Each pupil who excels will be rewarded. 

5. I did not hear what you said. 6. What man among you is blameless ? 
7. The fine was too heavy. 8. It is a fine day. 9. I have but one 
suggestion to make. 10. Which of the two is the better? 11. It was 
a calm night. 12. Those books are mine. 13. A calm precedes the 
storm. 14. Those are my books. 15. Any life that is worth living 
must be a struggle. 16. They did not know which road to take. 
17. She has a pretty gold watch. 18. Several were absent today. 

19. I saw him several days ago. 20. Gold was discovered in Cali- 
fornia in 1848. 21. Neither will answer my purpose. 22. A rolling 



10 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

stone gathers no moss. 23. Neither proposition is satisfactory. 24. The 
house was surrounded by a stone wall. 25. One is sometimes at a loss 
to know what to do. 26. The other boy did well too. 27. Either is 
satisfactory. 28. The oak tree was struck by lightning. 29. The 
desk was made of oak. 30. Either book will interest you. 31. I 
prefer the other. 32. Some men are born great ; some achieve great- 
ness ; and some have greatness thrust upon them. 33. Few things 
are impossible to diligence and skill. 34. Many are called, but few 
are chosen. 

THE VERB 

39. A verb is a word that asserts something about 
some person or thing. 

Some verbs express action; as, "Birds sing;" some express exist- 
ence; as, "I am here;" and others express state or condition; as, 
"He feels happy." 

40. A verb is not always a single word, but is some- 
times a group of words; as, will go; can be done; shall 
have been completed. Such a group of words is called a 
verb phrase. 

41. A verb phrase consists of a principal verb and one 
or more helping words, called an auxiliary verb. 

. Thus, in the sentence, "The work should have been done sooner," 

done is the principal verb, and should have been is an auxiliary verb. 

The parts of a verb phrase are sometimes separated by other 

words; as, "He had, a few days before, been elected president of the 

society." 

42. The principal auxiliary verbs are be, am, is, are, was, 
were, can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, 
would, do, does, did, has, have, and had. Some of these 
may be used also as principal verbs ; as, "Time is money." 
"They did the work well." "I have a knife." 

Exercise 8 

Point out the verbs and the verb phrases and name the 
principal verb in the verb phrases: 



THE VERB 11 

1. Labor conquers all things. 2. Wealth may seek us, but wisdom 
must be sought. 3. Animals have voice; man alone has speech. 
4. They have finished the work. 5. Did you hear the bell? 6. The 
precious morning hours should not be wasted. 7. He had no time to 
prepare his speech. 8. If he had not known how to swim, he would 
have drowned. 9. I do wish that you would go too. 10. A man's 
manners often affect his fortune. 11. They do our work promptly 
and satisfactorily. 12. My country is the world; my countrymen 
are all mankind. 13. We are shipping the goods today. 14. Reputa- 
tion is gained by many acts, but one act alone will destroy it. 15. He 
did the work in a satisfactory manner. 16. She has passed in all her 
studies. 17. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay 
any imposts or duties on imports or exports. 

Classes of Verbs 

43. Verbs are divided into two classes: transitive and 
intransitive. 

44. A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object 
to complete the sense. 

Examples: The hunter shot a bird. Small courtesies 
sweeten life. 

The word transitive means to pass over; hence, a transitive verb 
usually implies a passing over of the action from the subject to the 
object. The action expressed by the verb may be an act of the mind, 
expressed by such verbs as think and believe, or an act of the feelings, 
expressed by such verbs as wish, desire, like, and admire. The verbs 
own, have, possess, etc., while they do not express action, are usually 
transitive. 

45. An intransitive verb is a verb that does not require 
an object to complete the sense. 

Examples : The wind blows. All grand thoughts come 
from the heart. 

Some verbs may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in 
another. When followed by an object, a verb is transitive; when 
not followed by an object, it is intransitive. 

Examples: The wind blows the leaves (transitive). The wind 
blows hard (intransitive). 



12 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

The Direct Object 

46. The noun or pronoun that completes the meaning 
of a transitive verb is called the direct object. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Columbus discovered America," America 
is the direct object of the verb discovered, because it completes the 
meaning and receives the action expressed by the verb. 

The Attribute Complement 

47. Most intransitive verbs make complete sense, but 
there are a few that require a noun, a pronoun, or an adjec- 
tive to complete their meaning. Such verbs are called 
incomplete intransitive or copulative verbs, because they 
connect a complement with the subject of the verb. 

48. The verb be (with its various forms is, am, are, 
was, were) is the only pure copulative verb, though other 
intransitive verbs are frequently thus used; as, appear, 
become, seem, look, feel, taste, smell, etc. 

Test : A verb is copulative when some form of the verb be can 
be substituted for it; as, "He appears iH"="He is ill." 

49. The complement may be a noun, a pronoun, or an 
adjective. 

50. The noun or pronoun that completes the meaning 
of an intransitive verb and refers to the subject is called 
the attribute complement, or predicate noun or pronoun. 

The noun or pronoun used as the attribute complement denotes 
the same person or thing as the subject, while the noun or pronoun 
used as the direct object denotes a different person or thing. 

Thus, in the sentence, "Washington became president," Wash- 
ington and president denote the same person ; hence, the verb is copu- 
lative, and president is an attribute complement. But in the sentence, 
"Washington defeated Cornwallis," Washington and Cornwallis 
denote different persons ; hence, the verb is transitive, and Cornwallis 
is a direct object. 

51. An adjective may be used to complete the meaning 
of an intransitive verb and to modify the subject; as 



THE VERB 13 

"The apple is sweet," "The flowers are beautiful." An 
adjective so used is called a predicate adjective. 

52. In such sentences as "The sun is shining," "The 
book is torn," beginners often find it difficult to determine 
whether the word following a form of the verb be is a part 
of the verb phrase or a complement of the verb. If the 
predicate expresses action, the word in question is a part 
of the verb phrase ; but if the predicate expresses a quality 
or condition of the subject, the word is not a part of the 
verb, but a complement of the verb. In the sentence, 
"The sun is shining," is shining expresses a continuance 
of the action ; hence, shining is a part of the verb. In the 
sentence, "The book is torn," torn expresses a condition 
of the subject, not an action; hence, it is not a part of 
the verb, but an adjective, used as the attribute comple- 
ment of the verb. 

Exercise 9 

Tell whether the italicized words are parts of the verb 
or attribute complements: 

1. The flowers are blooming. 2. The debt is paid. 3. The debt 
was paid promptly. 4. The debt has been paid. 5. The books are 
soiled. 6. Books are soiled by use. 7. The boy has soiled his new 
book. 8. The work is finished. 9. They have finished the work. 
10. The house is deserted. 11. The house was deserted soon after it 
was built. 12. He is satisfied with the goods. 13. The apples are 
freezing. 14. The apples are frozen. 15. We are happy now. 16. We 
have been happy here. 17. He is hurt. 18. He has hurt his finger. 
19. The coat is worn and faded. 20. He has worn the coat several 
times. 21. The field is plowed. 22. The man is plowing the field. 
23. The field was plowed by the boy. 24. The prisoner is guilty. 
25. He has prepared his lesson. 26. I am not prepared to speak on 
that subject now. 

The Indirect Object 

53. Some transitive verbs take, in addition to a direct 
object, what is called an indirect object, which denotes to 



14 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

whom or for whom an act is performed. The indirect object 
is always the object of the preposition to, for, or of under- 
stood, and may be so treated. 

Examples: He sent me a book=He sent a book to me. 
The tailor made him a coat=The tailor made a coat for 
him. He asked me a question = He asked a question of me. 

The Objective Complement 

54. Sometimes the direct object is followed by a noun 
that refers to it or by an adjective that modifies it. Such 
noun or adjective is called an objective complement. 

Thus, in the sentence, "They elected Roosevelt president," presi- 
dent completes the meaning and refers to the direct object Roose- 
velt. In the sentence, "They found the work difficult," the adjective 
difficult completes the meaning and modifies the direct object work. 

The objective complement bears the same relation to the direct 
object that the attribute complement bears to the subject. The 
attribute complement, completes the meaning, and if a noun, it denotes 
the same person or thing as the subject, and if an adjective, it modifies 
the subject ; the objective complement completes the meaning, and if 
a noun, it denotes the same person or thing as the direct object, and 
if an adjective, it modifies the direct object. 

Exercise 10 

Copy the verbs, arranging transitive verbs in the first 
column, intransitive in the second, and copulative in the 
third, and be prepared to name the objects of the transitive 
verbs and the attribute complements of the copulative 
verbs : 

1. Each individual has a place in the world to fill. 2. The flowers 
are beautiful. 3. Labor conquers all things. 4. Lay the books on 
the table. 5. The books lay on the table yesterday. 6. Honesty 
is the best policy. 7. A wise man reflects before he speaks. 8. They 
were glad, yet they shed tears. 9. Do not stand in the way. 10. 
Stand the chairs against the wall. 11. The water of the lake reflects 
the sunlight. 12. The world revolves, yet we do not feel its motion. 
13. He became rich. 14. He entered the record on his books. 15. I 



THE ADVERB 15 

feel ill. 16. The gems have life in them ; their colors speak. 17. The 
light entered through the window and fell on his face. 18. Patience 
is a bitter seed, but it yields rich fruit. 19. Velvet feels smooth. 
20. He and I studied and played together in boyhood. 21. He appears 
indifferent. 22. We studied our lessons in the morning and played 
games in the afternoon. 23. Every great thought alters the world. 
24. If I were he, I should not go. 25. The flowers smell sweet. 26. If 
you were I, you would think differently. 27. He looks cold. 28. The 
sun was warm. 

Exercise 11 

Copy the complements, arranging direct objects in the 
first column, predicate nouns and predicate adjectives in 
the second, indirect objects in the third,, and objective 
complements in the fourth: 

1. Wisdom is priceless. 2. The groves were God's first temples. 
3. Prosperity gains friends, and adversity tries them. 4. The Presi- 
dent appointed Mr. Fuller postmaster. 5. Mary made her doll a 
new dress. 6. Comparisons are odious. 7. We have appointed 
you our agent. 8. Please lend me your knife. 9. He looks cold. 
10. We can make our lives sublime. 11. A man's manners often 
affect his fortune. 12. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 
13. He painted the house brown. 14. The flowers smell sweet. 
15. Books are the legacies of genius. 16. God called the light day, 
and the darkness He called night. 17. Such an investment would 
have been profitable. 18. Did you send them a present? 19. The 
stars are distant worlds. 20. Will you do me a favor? 21. I am the 
man you are looking for. 22. He appears indifferent. 23. Good 
clothes are not good habits. 24. His energy made the undertaking a 
success. 25. They have made him captain of the team. 26. Heaven's 
decrees are just. 27. The sun feels warm. 28. The laws of nature 
are the thoughts of God. 

THE ADVERB 

55. An adverb is a word that is used to modify the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Examples: He spoke distinctly. The house is very large. 
He spoke very distinctly. 



16 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Classes of Adverbs 

56. According to their use in sentences, adverbs are di- 
vided into four classes: simple, interrogative, conjunctive, 
and modal. 

57. A simple adverb is an adverb that merely modifies 
the word with which it is used. 

Examples : He came early. The clouds moved slowly. 

58. Simple adverbs may be divided into six classes: 

1. Adverbs of time, answering the question, When? 
as, now, then, daily, early, soon, before, always, to-day, yes- 
terday, by and by. 

2. Adverbs of place, answering the question, Where? 
as, here, there, anywhere, backward, where, somewhere, yonder, 
up, down, away, below. 

3. Adverbs of manner, answering the question, How? 
as, easily, well, thoroughly, rapidly, softly, faithfully, badly. 

4. Adverbs of cause, answering the question, Why? 
as, therefore, why, hence, wherefore, thus. 

5. Adverbs of degree, answering the question, How 
much? as, so, too, very, much, almost, exceedingly, more, 
little. 

6. Adverbs of number, answering the question, How 
many? as, once, twice, thrice, first, secondly, thirdly. 

59. An interrogative adverb is an adverb used to ask a 
question; as, when, how, where, why. 

Examples: When did he arrive? How old is he? 
Where did he go? 

60. A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that modifies 
the meaning of some word in the subordinate clause, and 
at the same time connects the subordinate clause with the 
principal clause. 

In the sentence, "The birds sing when the sun shines," when mod- 
ifies the meaning of the verb shines in the subordinate clause, the 
sun shines, and also joins this clause to the principal clause, the 
birds sing. 



THE PREPOSITION 17 

61. A modal adverb is an adverb that modifies the 
meaning of the entire sentence rather than some particular 
word in the sentence, and is used to express affirmation, 
negation, probability, doubt, emphasis, etc. 

Examples : Thou shalt surely die. It is not all of life 
to live. Certainly, I shall go. 

62. Certain combinations of words that can not easily 
be separated into parts, and that convey a single adverbial 
idea, may be called phrase adverbs; as, here and there, by 
and by, again and again, at hand, of course, at least, one 
by one, etc. 

Exercise 12 

Copy the adverbs, arranging those that modify verbs in 
the first column, those that modify adjectives in the second, 
and those that modify adverbs in the third : 

1. He always does his work well. 2. Comparatively few persons 
take advantage of their opportunities. 3. She listened very intently 
to the speech. 4. He knew full well that it was wrong. 5. The 
bamboo is an extremely graceful tree. 6. He walked along very 
slowly. 7. He came too early. 8. He is thoroughly reliable. 9. He 
formerly lived here. 10. He sold his property at a remarkably low 
price. 11. He writes fairly well. 12. He drove unusually fast. 
13. Where did you go? 14. It was so very cold that I did not go. 
15. He is often improperly quoted. 16. Too many cooks spoil the 
broth. 17. I could hardly hear him. 18. Is he seriously ill ? 19. The 
matter will be promptly adjusted. 20. Swiftly sailed the ship. 21. 
He is a little taller than I. 22. I was exceedingly glad to hear from 
you. 23. Every man must patiently abide his time. 24. It should 
have been done sooner. 25. They found the way very easily. 26. He 
spoke slowly and distinctly. 27. He gladly accompanied me to the 
theater. 28. He is here now. 

THE PREPOSITION 

63. A preposition is a word used to connect a noun or 
a pronoun to some other word in the sentence, and to show 
the relation between them. 



18 



ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 



Examples : The cottage stood by the river. 
on the table is mine. 



The book 



64. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is 
called its object. 

The following are the prepositions most commonly 



65. 

used : 


The fo 


at 


but 


of 


down 


in 


from 


to 


into 


up 


over 


off 


past 


for 


save 



till 

upon 

with 

about 

above 

after 

among 



below 


besides 


until 


between 


under 


beneath 


behind 


against 


during 


regarding 


except 


concerning 


within 


respecting 



66. 



Some groups of words are used with the force of 
single prepositions and may be called phrase prepositions; 

as, out of, from beyond, according to, as to, in place of, on 
account of, as for, aboard of, by way of, contrary to, devoid 
of, from out, for the sake of, in accordance with, in compli- 
ance with, instead of, in regard to, in reference to, to the extent 
of, with respect to. 

67. Some words that are commonly prepositions be- 
come adverbs when not followed by an object. 

Examples: He is in the house (preposition). Come in 
(adverb). 

Exercise 13 

Tell whether the italicized words are prepositions or 
adverbs; name the objects of the prepositions and tell 
what the adverbs modify: 

1. The books are on my desk. 2. The soldiers marched on. 3. He 
is in the house. 4. He came in and sat down. 5. Have you ever 
seen him before! 6. Come before noon. 7, We walked down the 
street together. 8. There were several men standing by. 9. She 
stood by an open window. 10. We looked around, but saw nothing. 
11. We rode around the lake. 12. The river runs through his farm. 



THE CONJUNCTION 19 

13. We have not been there since that time. 14. He has not been 
here since. 15. We walked along the track. 16. Just as we turned 
the corner, they came hurrying along. 17. The wind blew my hat 
off. 18. He fell off the scaffold. 19. The train is behind time. 20. He 
lagged behind. 21. The elevator has just gone down. 

THE CONJUNCTION 

68. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, or clauses. 

Example: Mercy and truth have met together. 

Classes of Conjunctions 

69. Conjunctions are divided into two classes : co- 
ordinate and subordinate. 

70. A co-ordinate conjunction connects words, phrases, 
or clauses of equal rank. 

Examples : Time and tide wait for no man. They 
passed through the door and across the room. They were 
glad, yet they shed tears. 

In the first sentence, and connects time and tide, two words of equal 
rank, because they jointly form the subject of the sentence. In the 
second sentence, and connects through the door and across the room, 
phrases of equal rank, because both modify passed. In the third 
sentence, yet connects the propositions, they were glad, and they shed 
tears, elements of equal rank, because each is an independent sentence. 

71. The principal coordinate conjunctions are : 

and yet thus moreover both — and 

but else hence accordingly either — or 

or also whence consequently neither — nor 

nor still therefore nevertheless whether — or 

72. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate 
clause with a principal clause. 

Example : We shall go if it does not rain. 

In this sentence, if connects the subordinate clause, it does not 
rain, with the principal clause, we- shall go. 



20 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

73. The principal subordinate conjunctions are: 



as 


after 


before 


although 


so that 


if 


until 


though 


provided 


in case that 


for 


lest 


unless 


whereas 


in order that 


till 


since 


except 


supposing 


as soon as 


than 


while 


because 


provided 


inasmuch as 



74. Some groups of words are used with the force of 
single conjunctions and may be called phrase conjunctions; 

as, as well as, as soon as, as if, inasmuch as, in order that, 
so that, as though, but that. 

75. Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions used in 
pairs, the first introducing and the second connecting the 
elements. 

Examples : He is either a knave or a fool. Neither 
time nor money was spared. He is both wise and good. 

76. The principal correlatives are : neither — nor; either — 
or; both — and; though — yet; whether— or; not only — but 
also. 

Exercise 14 

Copy the conjunctions, arranging coordinate conjunctions 
in the first column, subordinate in the second, and correl- 
ative in the third, and be prepared to tell what each connects : 

1. Nature and wisdom always say the same thing. 2. We always 
have time enough, if we will use it aright. 3. Courage is admirable, 
but patience is powerful. 4. He or I will go. 5. I shall go unless it 
rains. 6. Both he and I will be present. 7. The wicked flee when 
no man pursueth. 8. Plan your work and work your plan. 9. He 
failed because he had but little capital and no experience. 10. I 
shall not go until it stops raining. 11. They were glad, yet they shed 
tears. 12. We will go provided you will meet us. 13. Slowly 
and sadly we laid him down. 14. We shall go as soon as we hear 
from him. 15. Language is the picture and counterpart of thought. 
16. We do not care whether he goes or not. 17. What is liberty 
without wisdom and without virtue? 18. Either he or I will go. 
19. He walks as if he were tired. 20. The allegation is not true, nor 
is the evidence sufficient to sustain it. 



THE INTERJECTION 21 



THE INTERJECTION 

77. An interjection is a word used to express strong 
emotion of some kind. 

Example: Hurrah! Here come the boys. 

The interjection has no grammatical relation to the other words 
in the sentence. 

The following words are used as interjections : oh ! ah ! fie ! how ! 
why ! see ! help ! well ! fire ! hark ! hush ! shame ! stop ! look out ! 
beware ! farewell ! nonsense ! 

Exercise 15 

Copy, on Form 15, the italicized words in the following 
sentences, and be prepared to tell to what part of speech 
each word belongs : 

1. That man is the best educated who is the most useful. 2. We 
always have time enough if we will use it aright. 3. He is old enough 
to know better. 4. Those who live without a plan have never any 
leisure. 5. Any of you can do as well as he. 6. Is he any better to- 
day? 7. What do you want? 8. What book does she want? 9. I 
do not know what he wants. 10. Men are but children of larger 
growth. 11. There was no one at home but mother and me. 12. En- 
ergy is a good thing, but it must be guided by discretion. 13. Plan 
your work and work your plan. 14. Young man, keep your record 
clean. 15. He is an American and glories in the right of an American 
citizen. 16. All were well pleased. 17. He stood before me. 18. He 
has been here before. 19. He came before I left. 20. Farmers till 
the soil. 21. The money is in the till. 22. Stay till the bell rings. 
23. Stay till train time. 24. He passed by on the other side. 25. I 
will go after dinner. 26. You will remember this in after years. 27. He 
came soon after you left. 28. Both men are worthy of the position. 
29. Both of them are industrious. 30. Both he and I are going. 31. He 
will do the work for you. 32. He merits the reward, for he has worked 
hard. 33. Hope maketh a man strong. 34. His needs were supplied. 
35. He needs someone to take care of him. 36. The children long 
for home and mother. 37. It is a long time to wait. 38. I like his 
reading. 39. He is reading the book. 40. I like the old-fashioned 



22 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

reading books. 41. I have just taken a long walk. 42. We usually 
walk to the office. 43. Do not idle away your time. 44. An idle 
brain is the devil's workshop. 45. He failed, because he had but 
little capital and no experience. 46. I shall go while the weather is 
pleasant. 47. If we while away our time we shall not reach our jour- 
ney's end for a long while. 

Test Questions 

1. Into how many classes are all the words of our language divided? 

2. How do we determine to what part of speech a word belongs? 

3. Into what classes are nouns divided? 4. Define a common noun. 
Give an example. 5. Into what classes are common nouns divided? 
Define and give an example of each class. 6. Define a proper noun. 
Give an example. 7. What is a pronoun? 8. Into how many classes 
are pronouns divided? Define and give an example of each class. 
9. What is an adjective? 10. Into what classes are adjectives divid- 
ed? Define and give an example of each class. 11. What is a verb? 
12. What is a transitive verb? Give an example. 13. What is an 
intransitive verb? Give an example. 14. What is a copulative 
verb? Give an example. 15. What is the difference between the 
object of a transitive verb and the attribute complement of a copu- 
lative verb? 16. What is the difference between an attribute com- 
plement and an objective complement? 17. What preposition may 
be supplied before an indirect object? 18. Of what does a verb 
phrase consist? 19. What is an auxiliary verb? 20. What may be 
the attribute complement of a copulative verb? 21. What is an 
adverb? 22. Into what classes are adverbs divided? Define and 
give an example of each class. 23. Give a sentence containing an 
adverb of time ; of place ; of manner ; of cause ; of degree. 24. What 
parts of speech may an adverb modify? Give an example of each. 
25. What is a conjunction? 26. Into what classes are conjunctions 
divided? Define and give an example of each. 27. What is a prep- 
osition? 



PART II 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 

78. You have learned that a sentence consists of two 
parts : 

1. The subject — that about which something is 
asserted. 

2. The predicate — that which asserts something about 
the subject. 

The subject or the predicate may consist of a single word ; as, 
"Rain falls." But usually some word, phrase, or clause is added to 
the subject or the predicate, or to both, to make the meaning more 
exact. Such word, phrase, or clause is called a modifier. 

79. When a modifier is added to the subject or predicate, 
the subject or predicate is said to be modified. 

Thus, in the sentence, "The spring rain falls gently," the and spring 
are modifiers of the subject rain, and gently is a modifier of the verb 
falls. 

80. The complete subject is the subject with its modi- 
fiers. 

Example : The spring rain falls gently. 

81. The simple subject is the subject without its modi- 
fiers. 

Example : The spring rain falls gently. 

82. The complete predicate is the verb or the verb 
phrase with its modifiers and complements. 

Examples : The spring rain falls gently. Silence is a 
great peacemaker. 

83. The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase 
without its modifiers. 

Example : The spring rain falls gently. 

23 



24 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Classes of Modifiers 

84. Modifiers are divided, according to form, into three 
classes: words, phrases, and clauses. 

Adjectives and adverbs, already fully treated, are the principal 
word modifiers. 

85. A noun may be placed beside another noun by 
way of explanation denoting the same person or thing. It 
is then said to be an appositive, or to be in apposition with 
the noun it explains. 

Examples : Our representative, Mr. Wilson, will call on 
you soon. We heard Mr. Spurgeon, the great London 
preacher. In the first sentence, Mr. Wilson is in apposition 
with representative; in the second, preacher is in apposition 
with Mr. Spurgeon. 

86. A phrase is a group of words that does not contain 
a subject and a predicate and that is used as a single part 
of speech. 

Example : He is a man of wealth. Of wealth is a phrase, 
modifying man, equivalent to wealthy. 

87. A phrase formed by a preposition and its object is 
called a prepositional phrase. 

88. A prepositional phrase may be used as — * 

1. An adjective modifier; as, "A thing of beauty is a 
joy forever." Of beauty is an adjective phrase modifying 
thing. 

2. An adverbial modifier; as, 'The ship sailed over 
the sea." Over the sea is an adverbial phrase modifying 
sailed. 

89. A. clause is a group of words that contains a subject 
and a predicate and that is used as a single part of speech. 

Example : He is a man who is wealthy. Who is wealthy 
is an adjective clause modifying man, equivalent to wealthy. 

90. A clause may be used as — 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 25 

1. An adjective modifier; as, "A city that is set on a 
hill can not be hid." That is set on a hill is an adjective 
clause modifying city. 

2. An adverbial modifier; as, "Fools rush in where 
angels fear to tread." Where angles fear to tread is an adver- 
bial clause modifying rush. 

Order of Elements 

91. In a declarative sentence, the subject usually pre- 
cedes the verb, and the object or the complement follows 
the verb. This is called the natural order. 

(subject) (verb) (object) 

Example : Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 

92. For emphasis, a word or phrase is sometimes placed 
out of its natural position in the sentence. This is called 
the transposed order. , , + , , .. , . . ,, 

r (complement) (verb) (subject) 

Example: A mighty man was he. 

In the natural order, the prepositional phrase follows the word it 
modifies, but for emphasis, it is often transposed. When there are 
two or more phrases modifying the same word, it is generally better 
to transpose one or more of the phrases ; as, "In a long ramble of 
the kind, on a fine autumnal datj, Rip had unconsciously scrambled 
to one of the highest parts of the Kaatskiil Mountains." 

93. The subject of an interrogative sentence usually 
follows the verb, or is placed between the parts of a verb 
phrase. , ,. , ,. ^ 

^ (verb) (subject) 

Example: Where are the birds now? 

(auxiliary (principal 

verb) (subject) verb) 

Example: Why do leaves fall face downward? 

94. When an interrogative pronoun is the subject, the 
elements are usually in their natural order. 

(subject) (verb) (object) 

Example : Who did the work ? 

95. The subject of an imperative sentence is usually 
you understood. 

Example: (You) Let us go too. 



26 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

96. When a sentence is introduced by there, the subject 
is placed after the verb. 

(verb) (subject) 

Example: There were giants in those days. 

97. In sentences of this kind, there is neither the subject 
nor a modifier. It is used to introduce the sentence in 
order to throw the subject after the verb for emphasis or 
euphony, and is called an expletive. 

98. The pronoun it is sometimes the apparent subject, 
when the real subject follows the verb. 

Example : It is easy to find fault ; that is, 

(subject) (verb) 

(It) to find fault is easy. 

In sentences of this kind, some call it the subject and the phrase 
to find fault an appositive of it, while others call it an expletive and 
the phrase to find fault the subject. 



Exercise 16 

Change the following sentences to the natural order, 
point out the complete subject and the complete predicate ; 
the simple subject and the simple predicate: 

1. On a grassy bank stood a tall, waving ash, sound to the very- 
core. 2. On their right was a tall mountain. 3. In his bright, blue 
eyes stood tears of remorse. 4. Gay with the clustered flowers of 
the locust are the woods. 5. How beautiful is white-winged peace ! 
6. There is no royal road to learning. 7. Whom did you call for? 
8. Sweet is the breath of morn. 9. Here come the boys. 10. Slowly 
and sadly they laid him down. 11. Through the clouds of today 
shines the brightness of tomorrow. 12. Silent and soft and slow 
descends the snow. 13. From Clive's first visit to India, dates the 
political ascendency of the English in that country. 14. Great and 
marvelous are Thy works! 15. Not a single region that the Indians 
can now call their own do the winds of the Atlantic fan. 16. Into 
the valley of death rode the six hundred. 17. Out of the abundance 
of the heart the mouth speaketh. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 27 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 

99. With respect to form, sentences are divided into 
three classes : simple, compound, and complex. 

100. A simple sentence is a sentence that contains but 
one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may 
be compound. 

Example: A man's manners often affect his fortune. 

Compound Elements 

101. To avoid repetition, two or more simple sentences 
may be contracted into one simple sentence that has — 

1. A compound subject. 
Industry is essential to success. 
Energy is essential to success. 
Good sense is essential to success. 
Industry, energy, and good sense are essential to success. 

2. A compound predicate verb. 

Napoleon rose. ) 
Napoleon reigned. \ = 
Napoleon fell. J 

Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell. 

3. A compound object. 

He saw you. ] 

He saw him. [ = 

He saw me. J 

He saw you, him, and me. 

4. A compound complement. 

Washington was a soldier. 
Washington was a statesman. 
Washington was a soldier and statesman. 

5. Compound adjective modifiers. 

Glass is hard. ] 

Glass is brittle. \ = 

Glass is transparent. J 

Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. 



28 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

6. Compound adverbial modifiers. 
He stated his case frankly. 
He stated his case clearly. 
He stated his case frankly and clearly. 

A beaver can live on the land. \ _ 

A beaver can live in the water. J 

A beaver can live on the land or in the water. 

7. A compound indirect object. 

The manager gave him a ticket to the entertainnent. 1 __ 
The manager gave me a ticket to the entertainment. J 
The manager gave him and me tickets to the entertainment. 

102. Compound elements may be separated by inter- 
vening words or phrases; as, "The natives of Ceylon 
build houses of the trunks of cocoanut palms, and thatch 
the roofs with leaves." In this sentence, build and thatch 
is the compound predicate. 

Exercise 17 

Copy the following sentences, contracting each set into 
one simple sentence, and be prepared to tell whether the 
compound element is a subject, an attribute complement, 
an object, an adjective or an adverbial modifier: 

1. Grant was a soldier. 
Grant was an author. 
Grant was a statesman. 

2. Pure thoughts elevate a man. 
Good deeds elevate a man. 
Noble aspirations elevate a man. 

3. The pavement is cold. 
The pavement is damp. 

4. Where shall I find money? 
Where shall I find friends? 
Where shall I find hope? 
Where shall I find happiness ? 
Where shall I find a clean conscience? 

5. The dancing rivulet is an incessant worker. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 29 

The purling rivulet is an incessant worker. 
The sparkling rivulet is an incessant worker. 

6. She plays on the piano. 
She plays on the organ. 
She plays on the violin. 

7. The boy is obedient to his parents. 
The boy is respectful to his teacher. 

8. In the best books great men talk to us. 

In the best books great men give us their most precious thoughts. 
In the best books great men pour their souls into ours. 

9. Love for study is an important trait of character. 

A desire to do right is an important trait of character. 
Carefulness in choosing our companions is an important trait of 
character. 

Exercise 18 

Name the complete subject and the complete predicate, 
the simple subject and the simple predicate. Point out the 
phrases and tell what each modifies: 

Model : The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

The laws of nature is the complete subject, and are the thoughts 
of God is the complete predicate. Laws is the simple subject, and 
are is the simple predicate. Of nature is a phrase modifying laws, 
and of God is a phrase modifying thoughts. 

1. A host of Indian warriors rushed across the plain. 2. The 
melodious notes of the organ were heard through the aisles of the 
cathedral. 3. The light entered the window and fell on the lad's 
face. 4. The love of money is the root of all evil. 5. We may cover 
a multitude of sins with the white robe of charity. 6. Elmwood, the 
home of Lowell, is in Cambridge. 7. The deep cave on the hillside 
was long the secret home of a family of foxes. 8. Honor and shame 
from no condition rise. 9. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on 
those happy islands. 10. The man with the black coat fell from the 
top of the wall. 11. The best teachers of humanity are the lives of 
great men. 12. The flowers in the garden are fragrant. 13. The 
beautiful prospects of nature always excite the warmest admiration 
of mankind. 14. Rome, the eternal city, is built on both sides of the 
Tiber. 15. Wild flowers of many different kinds grow in abundance 



30 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

in the woods. 16. We moved along silently and cautiously. 17. A 
single grateful thought toward heaven is the most complete prayer. 

18. The farmers are the founders of civilization and prosperity. 

19. The widest excursions of the mind are made by short flights. 

20. He is the best speller in the class. 21. The doorstep to the 
temple of wisdom is a knowledge of our own ignorance. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 

103. A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one 
principal and one or more subordinate clauses. 

104. A principal clause is a clause that makes sense 
when standing alone. 

105. A subordinate clause is a clause that does not 
make sense when standing alone. 

Thus, in the sentence, "He who has made an enemy has done a 
sad day's work," he has done a sad day's work is the principal clause, 
because it makes sense when standing alone ; who has made an enemy 
is a subordinate clause, because it does not make complete sense 
when standing alone. 

106. A subordinate clause may be simple, compound, or 
complex. 

Examples: I believe that he is honest (simple). I believe 
that he is honest and that he will pay his debts (compound). 
I believe that he will pay his debts when they are due (com- 
plex). 

The Noun Clause 

107. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun. 

108. A noun clause may be used as — 

1. The subject of a verb; as, "That the world is full 
of beauty can not be denied." 

A noun clause is frequently the real subject, when the apparent 
subject is it; as, "It is probable that he will go." 

2. The object of a verb; as, "I know that he is strictly 
honest" 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 31 

The introductory that is often omitted; as, "I know the book 
will please you"="I know that the book will please you." 

3. The predicate complement; as, "My earnest wish 
is that you may succeed." 

4. The object of a preposition; as, "There was some 
misunderstanding about who should be invited" 

5. In apposition; as, "The report that the ship was 
lost was false." 

Exercise 19 

Tell whether the noun clauses are used as subjects, 
objects, predicate complements, objects of prepositions, or 
in apposition: 

1. We all believe that the earth is round. 2. The fact that the 
world is round is no longer doubted. 3. My opinion is that he is 
wrong. 4. No one can tell how this matter will end. 5. The doctrine 
that all men are created equal is disputed by many. 6. Goldsmith 
says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 7. We still 
cherish the hope that he will return. 8. Tell me why you are sad. 
9. Then he thought how the long streets were dotted with lamps, 
and how the peaceful stars were shining overhead. 10. Whether I 
am right or not God only knows. 11. I do not know where he lives. 
12. I do not know who he is. 13. He said that he would be here 
soon, and that he would then take the matter up with us more in 
detail. 14. I do not know whence it cometh or whither it goeth. 
15. His objection is that you are too young. 16. It is evident that 
he is the thief. 17. He showed me where the wild flowers grow. 
18. The great and decisive test of genius is that it calls forth power 
in the souls of others. 19. I know where he lives and what his habits 
are. 

The Adjective Clause 

109. An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective. 

Example : The man who feels truly noble will become so. 

In this sentence, who feels truly noble is an adjective clause modi- 
fying the noun man, telling what man. 



32 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

110. An adjective clause may be introduced by — 

1. The relative pronouns that, who, or which. 
Example : I admire a boy who has manliness and 

courage. 

The relative pronoun is often omitted; as, "Here is the book you 
want."="Here is the book that you want." 

2. The conjunctive adverbs where, when, or why. 
Example : I do not know the reason why he did not 

come. 

As, usually an adverb or a conjunction, is a relative pronoun after 
such, same, and many; as, "Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth." 

The Adverbial Clause 

111. An adverbial clause is a clause used as an adverb. 
Example: The battle was lost before reinforcements 

could be sent. 

An adverbial clause usually modifies a verb; frequently an adjec- 
tive ; and sometimes an adverb. 

112. An adverbial clause may be introduced by a sub- 
ordinate conjunction or by a conjunctive adverb. It may 
express — 

1. Time; as, "Make hay while the sun shines." 

2. Place ; as, "He lay where he fell." 

3. Manner; as, "He does as he pleases." 

4. Cause or reason; as, "No one despises him because 
he is poor." 

5. Degree or comparison; as, "He is so dishonest that 
no one believes him." 

6. End or purpose ; as, "He came that he might see for 
himself." 

7. Result or effect; as, "He ran so fast that he was out 
of breath." 

8. Condition or concession; as, "If you have tears, 
prepare to shed them now." 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 33 

Students sometimes have difficulty in determining whether a clause 
beginning with when, where, why, whence, etc., is a noun, adjective, 
or adverbial clause. In all cases the use determines the class. In 
"I do not know where he lives," where he lives is a noun clause, used 
as the object of do know; in "That is the house where he lives," where 
he lives is an adjective clause, modifying house, telling which house ; 
while in "I will go where he goes," where he goes is an adverbial clause 
modifying will go, telling place. 

Exercise 20 

Point out the adjective and the adverbial clauses, tell 
what each modifies, and what the adverbial clauses express : 

1. Confidence can not dwell where Selfishness is porter at the gate. 
2. He lost his oar as he was returning to the island. 3. The man 
who escapes censure is fortunate. 4. A man staggers down to ruin 
because there is not enough wisdom in him. 5. This is the season 
when the days are shortest. 6. The house where we live is sixty 
years old. 7. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 
8. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead. 9. Gone are 
the birds that were our summer guests. 10. The larger trees he had 
girdled and killed in order that their foliage should not cast a shade. 

11. Henry VII was buried in the beautiful chapel of Westminster 
Abbey, which he had himself founded and which still bears his name. 

12. It was necessary to halt for two days that the army might collect 
food. 13. If you would be well served, you must serve yourself. 
14. Whither thou goest, I will go. 15. Flowers are the sweetest 
things that God ever made. 16. If you are in a hurry, you need not 
wait for me. 17. Where the leader of the flock goes, the sheep follow. 
18. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty overtakes him. 19. As 
he approached the stream, his heart began to thump. 20. The song 
that we hear with our ears is only the song that is sung in our hearts. 
21. Please ship the goods as soon as they are ready. 22. When the 
righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 

113. A compound sentence is a sentence that consists 
of two or more independent clauses. 

Examples: Talent is soniething, but tact is everything. 



34 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Science tunnels mountains, it spans continents, it bridges 
seas, and it weighs the stars. 

114. The clauses of which compound sentences are 
formed are called members. 

115. The members of a compound sentence are usually 
connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, expressed or under- 
stood; sometimes, however, there is no connective, but 
the relation is so close that the clauses are regarded as 
parts of a compound sentence; as, "Suspicion always 
haunts the guilty mind; the thief doth fear each bush an 
officer." 

116. Any or all of the members of a compound sentence 
may be complex; as, "The evil that men do lives after 
them, but the good is oft interred with their bones." This 
is a compound sentence, the first member of which is com- 
plex, consisting of the principal clause, the evil lives after 
them, and the subordinate adjective clause, that men do, 
which modifies evil. The second member, the good is oft 
interred with their hones, is a simple sentence. Sentences 
of this kind may be called compound- complex sentences. 

Care should be exercised in forming compound sentences. Young 
persons are likely to join sentences that have no relation; as, "The 
cow jumped over the moon, and Johnny has a pair of new boots." 

117. Compound sentences may be formed by uniting — 

1. Sentences in which there is a similarity of meaning 
or a continuation of the same line of thought. 

Examples : The heavens declare the glory of God, and 
the firmament showeth his handiwork. The soft drops of 
rain pierce the hard marble; many strokes overthrow the 
tallest oaks. 

And is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Others are besides, likewise, otherwise, moreover, further, furthermore. 

2. Sentences in which the thoughts are in contrast. 
Example : Circumstances are beyond the control of man, 

but his conduct is in his own power. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 35 

But is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Others are still, yet, notwithstanding, however, nevertheless. 

3. Sentences presenting thoughts between which one 
must make a choice. 

Example : You must learn the value of time, or you 
will not succeed in any undertaking. 

Or is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Others are nor, else, otherwise, neither, either. 

4. Sentences expressing inference, consequence, cause, 
or effect. 

Example: He is not present, hence he must be ill. 

Therefore is the conjunction most often used in sentences of this kind. 
Others are hence, consequently, wherefore, so, thus, accordingly, so that. 

Exercise 21 

Point out the members of the following compound sen- 
tences and tell whether they are simple or complex. Name 
the principal and the subordinate clauses of the complex 
members, and tell whether the subordinate clauses are 
noun, adjective, or adverbial: 

1. Courage is admirable, but patience is powerful. 

2. The earth revolves, yet we do not feel its motion. 

3. Concession is no humiliation; compromise is often necessary. 

4. Tell me with whom you associate, and I will tell you what 

you are. 

5. There must be work done by the arms, or none of us could live. 

6. The allegation is not true, nor is the evidence sufficient to sus- 

tain it. 

7. Straws float upon the surface, but pearls lie at the bottom of 

the stream. 

8. In the morning I arose with the lark, and at night I slept where 

sunset overtook me. 

9. The hearts of men are their books ; events are their tutors ; 

great actions are their eloquence. 
10. He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens 
our skill; our antagonist is our helper. 



36 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

11. There were rows of houses which he had never seen before, 

and those which had been his familiar haunts had disappeared. 

12. Modesty is one of the sweetest and most desirable qualities 

one can possess, yet too much modesty hinders advancement. 

13. Education is the one living fountain which must water every 

part of the social garden, or its beauty withers and fades 
away. 

14. If we work upon marble, it will perish ; if we work upon brass, 

time will efface it; if we rear temples, they will crumble 
into dust. 

15. As night set in, the wind whistled in a spiteful, falsetto key, 

and the rain lashed the old tavern as if it were a balky horse 
that refused to move on. 



ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

118. An Ellipsis is an omission of a word or words 
necessary to the complete construction of a sentence, but 
not required for the understanding of it. Ellipsis adds 
force and vividness to a sentence ; it is permissible, however, 
only when the mind of the reader or hearer can easily supply 
the omitted word or words. 

The student should carefully observe the following 
examples of elliptical sentences. The words enclosed in 
parenthesis are usually omitted. 

1. The subject of a simple sentence; as, "(I) thank 
you." "(You) please close the door." 

2. The predicate of a simple sentence; as, "Who did 
that?" "John (did it)." 

3. A preposition; as, "We will ship your goods (on) 
Monday." 

4. That introducing a noun clause ; as, "He said (that) 
he would go." 

5. The subject or the predicate, or both, of a clause; 
as, "While (he was) here, he did good work." "He likes 
me better than she (likes me)." "He likes me better than 
(he likes) her." 



ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 37 

6. The verb in one or more of the members of a com- 
pound sentence; as, "Worth makes the man; want of it 
(makes) the fellow." 

7. A noun modified by a noun or pronoun in the posses- 
sive case; as, "You have my book, and I have John's 
(book)." 

8. The antecedent of a relative pronoun; as, "(He) 
who steals my purse steals trash." 

9. An infinitive ; as, "I fear that I shall not be able to 
go, but I will try (to go)." 

10. A phrase ; as, "That is the way (by which) I came." 
"He came the day (on which) I left." 

11. The relative pronoun as the object of a verb or a 
preposition; as, "There is the man (whom) you saw." 
"He is the person (whom) you were talking about." 

Exercise 22 

Expand the following elliptical sentences: 

1. He is as tall as I. 2. They lost more than we. 3. It was she, 
not he, that I saw. 4. That is important if true. 5. Are you going? 
If not, say so. 6 It is now half past nine. 7. Nothing is so dangerous 
as pride. 8. Where is the book you called for? 9. He said he would 
go. 10. Who asked the question? I. 11. They can do that as well 
as we. 12. He has gone, but I do not know where. 13. He is not 
so good a speller as she. 14. She has a red rose, and I have a yellow. 
15. I have not seen him, but Henry has. 16. I have put it off as long 
as possible. 17. You have known him longer than I. 18. You have 
known him longer than me. 19. I was busy every moment while 
there. 20. They promised to help our friends as well as us. 21. There 
is the person you inquired about. 22. He, as well as we, needs to be 
informed of the rules. 23. Where before ordered, they must now 
be hired. 24. Mr. Simon Watts, though of extremely limited means, 
had some ambitions. 25. Our Christianity, though gaining, is still 
a small factor in our rule of living. 26. He knew more about the 
apostles and the prophets than modern doctors of divinity. 



38 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

VERBALS 

119. A verbal is a word that is derived from a verb and 
that partakes of the functions of a verb and of a noun, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

120. Verbals may be divided into three classes: verbal 
nouns, infinitives, and participles. 

The Verbal Noun 

121. A verbal noun is a word that is derived from a 
verb and that partakes of the functions of a noun and a 
verb at the same time. It is formed by adding -ing to the 
simple form of the verb; as, seeing from see; giving from 
give; doing from do. 

The verbal noun is, by some, called the gerund; by others, an 
infinitive in -ing; and by still others, a participle having the use of 
a noun. 

122. In form the verbal noun may be simple or com- 
pound; as, "His doing the work well won the admiration 
of his teacher." "His having done the work well won the 
admiration of his teacher." Compound verbal nouns are 
formed by prefixing having, having been, or being to the 
present or the perfect participle of the verb. 

123. The distinguishing characteristic of the verbal 
noun is that it partakes of the nature of a noun and of a 
verb at the same time. In its noun nature, it names an 
action and may be modified by a noun or a pronoun in the 
possessive case; it may be the subject or the attribute 
complement of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition. 
In its verb nature, it may be modified by an adverb or an 
adverbial phrase, and when derived from a transitive verb, 
it may take an object., In the sentence, "Rowing a boat 
on the lake is his principal pastime," rowing is a verbal 
noun, derived from the verb row. In its noun nature, it 
is the subject of the verb is, and in its verb nature, it takes 



VERBALS 39 

the object boat, and is modified by the adverbial phrase 
on the lake. 

Uses of the Verbal Noun 

124. The verbal noun may be used as — 

1. The subject; as, "Reading is profitable." 

2. The predicate complement ; as, "Rest is not quitting 
the busy career." 

3. The object of a verb; as, "I enjoy reading good 
books." 

4. The object of a preposition ; as, "I am not conscious 
of having neglected any duty." 

Exercise 23 

Point out the verbal nouns and tell how they are used 
both in their noun and verb nature, as shown in the follow- 
ing model : 

Model : He was promoted for doing his work well. 

Doing is a verbal noun, derived from the verb do. In its noun 
nature, it is the object of the preposition for, and in its verb nature, 
it takes the direct object work, and is modified by the adverb well. 

1. Urgent business prevented John's coming sooner. 2. I enjoyed 
visiting him. 3. I was surprised at your leaving so soon. 4. His 
acting so hastily was severely criticized. 5. He enjoys playing ball. 
6. Saving time is lengthening life. 7. I had given up all expectation 
of hearing from you. 8. We must insist on every one's doing his 
duty. 9. We enjoy riding on the lake. 10. Rest is not quitting the 
busy career. 11. Walking is healthful exercise. 12. Very much 
depends on your going now. 13. I regret having displeased him. 
14. His occupation is teaching. 15. We were pleased at his winning 
the prize. 16. Right living is obeying the laws of God. 17. The 
boy was punished for running away. 18. The man denied having 
taken the watch. 19. Do you remember my speaking to you? 
20. There is no doubt of his having been promoted. 21. Youth is 
the time for forming character. 22. He is conscious of having done 
a good deed. 



40 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE INFINITIVE 

125. An infinitive is a word that is derived from a verb 
and that partakes of the nature of a verb and of a noun, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

126. The infinitive is usually preceded by to, which is 
commonly called the sign of the infinitive. This sign is 
omitted after the verbs hid, dare, feel, see, let, make, need, 
help, hear, and a few others ; as, "I heard him (to) speak." 
"Please let me (to) go." 

127. In form, the infinitive, like the verbal noun, may 
be simple or compound; as, "To do the work well will 
require but little more time." "To have done the work well 
would have required but little more time." Compound 
infinitives are formed by prefixing to he, to have, or to have 
been to the perfect participle of the verb. 

128. An infinitive, with its modifiers, is called an infin- 
itive phrase; as, "I have tried to do justice to everybody." 

Uses of the Infinitive 

129. The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective, 
or an adverb, and at the same time, it may take the modi- 
fiers of a verb, and when derived from a transitive verb, 
it may take an object. In the sentence, "He expected to 
see his friend in the morning," to see is an infinitive, derived 
from the verb see. In its noun nature, it is the object of the 
verb expected, and in its verb nature, it takes the object 
friend, and is modified by the adverbial phrase in the 
morning. 

130. In its noun uses the infinitive is similar in construc- 
tion to the verbal noun, and by some is distinguished from 
it only in form. Thus, "To study is profitable = "Studying 
is profitable." 

131. As a noun the infinitive may be used as — 



THE INFINITIVE 41 

1. The subject of a verb; as, "To yield is often a mark 

of strength." 

The infinitive is frequently the real subject when the apparent 
subject is the pronoun it; as, "It is base to steal"= "To steal is base.'' 

2. The predicate complement of a verb ; as, "His duty- 
was to guard the men." 

3. The object of a verb ; as, "He likes to read" 

4. The object of a preposition ; as, "He cares for noth- 
ing except to make money." 

132. As an adjective the infinitive may modify a noun — 

1. Directly; as, "I have no time to waste" 

2. As a predicate adjective; as, "An early settlement 
of the question is to be desired" =" An early settlement of 
the question is desirable" 

133. As an adverb the infinitive may modify — 

1. A verb ; as, "The sower went forth to sow" 

2. An adverb ; as, "He is not well enough to go" 

3. An adjective; as, "He is anxious to succeed." 

134. The infinitive may be used as part of a verb phrase ; 
as, "It appears to be right." In this sentence, the verb 
phrase, appears to be, has the force of the verb is. 

135. The infinitive may be used as an assumed predi- 
cate; as, "I believe him to be honest." In this sentence, 
the abridged clause him to be honest is the object of believe, 
just as the clause he is honest is the object of believe in "I 
believe he is honest," and to be is the assumed predicate 
of him to be honest, just as is is the predicate of he is honest. 
Him is not the object of believe, because we do not mean 
we believe him, but we believe him to be honest. 

. 136. The infinitive phrase may be used independently ; 
as, "To be frank, I do not think he is honest." 



42 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Exercise 24 

Point out the infinitives and tell how they are used in 
their noun, adjective, or adverbial nature, and in their 
verb nature, as shown in the following model : 

Model: He came to see me. 

To see is an infinitive, derived from the verb see. In its adverbial 
nature, it modifies came, and in its verb nature, it takes the direct 
object me. 

1. To talk with great men is a liberal education. 2. He desires 
to go with you. 3. They made an effort to escape. 4. His desire 
is to know the truth. 5. The children went to the park to play. 
6. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 7. It is cowardly 
to tell a lie. 8. I should like to go home. 9. The captain ordered 
the soldiers to march. 10. He went to see the fire. 11. The right 
course is to listen to nature. 12. To have ideas is to gather flowers ; 
to think is to weave them into garlands. 13. To lose one's temper 
is to weaken one's power. 14. To yield is often a mark of strength. 
15. Some questions are difficult to answer. 16. He is anxious to suc- 
ceed. 17. It is often a mark of strength to yield. 18. He expects 
to win the prize. 19. Have you time to hear me? 20. We invited 
him to call. 21. I tried to remember his name. 22. We expect him 
to win the prize. 23. Every man desires to live long, but no man 
would be old. 

THE PARTICIPLE 

137. A participle is a word that is derived from a verb 
and that partakes of the functions of a verb and of an 
adjective. 

138. In its adjective nature, a participle modifies a 
noun or a pronoun, and it may take, at the same time, 
the modifiers of a verb ; and when derived from a transitive 
verb, it takes an object. In the sentence, "I saw the farmer 
chasing the Redcoats down the lane," chasing is a parti- 
ciple, derived from the verb chase. In its adjective nature, 
it modifies farmer, and in its verb nature, it takes the object 



THE PARTICIPLE 43 

Redcoats, and is modified by the adverbial phrase down 
the lane. 

139. A participle, with its modifiers, is called a parti- 
cipial phrase. 

140. The participle has three forms; present, past, and 
compound. 

141. The present participle is formed by adding -ing to 
the simple form of the verb, expressing the action or state 
as being in progress, and, hence, incomplete; as, "The 
flowers growing in the valley were refreshed by the showers." 

142. The past participle expresses the action or state 
as completed ; as, "Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again." 

143. The compound participle expresses the action as 
having been completed before the time represented by the 
verb in the sentence; as, "Having finished his work, he 
went home." 

144. The compound participle is formed by prefixing 
being, having, or having been to the present or the perfect 
participle of a verb ; as, having written, having been writing, 
having been written. 

Uses of the Participles 

145. A participle may be used — 

1. As an adjective modifying a noun or pronoun; as, 
"The stars, twinkling in the sky, had the appearance of 
large diamonds." 

Here the participial phrase twinkling in the sky is equivalent to 
the adjective clause which were twinkling in the sky. 

To determine the use of a participle used in this way, expand the 
phrase into a clause by changing the participle to a verb and supplying 
a relative pronoun for its subject. 

2. Loosely attached to a noun or a pronoun to denote 
an attendant action or condition; as, "Hearing a noise, 
he turned his head." 

Here the participial phrase hearing a noise appears to modify the 



44 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

predicate, by assigning a reason, being nearly equivalent to on hearing 
a noise or as he heard a noise; but the act of hearing is implied of the 
subject he; therefore, the participle properly belongs to the subject. 

3. As the assumed predicate of an abridged clause; 
as, "The sun having risen, we proceeded on our way." 

Here the sun having risen is nearly equivalent to the adverbial 
clause as or since the sun had risen. The noun sun and the participle 
having risen have the logical relation of subject and predicate; but 
since the participle assumes instead of asserts action, it is called the 
assumed predicate. This is usually called the nominative absolute 
construction. 

Exercise 25 

Point out the participles and tell how they are used both 
in their adjective and in their verb nature, as shown in 
the model. Expand into clauses the participles in the 
sentences marked with a star. 

Model : A house divided against itself can not stand. 

Divided is a participle, derived from the verb divide. In its adjec- 
tive nature, it modifies house, and in its verb nature, it is modified 
by the adverbial phrase against itself. 

1. Words once uttered can not be recalled.* 2. The bird sitting 
on the limb is a robin.* 3. He was placed in a room containing a 
chair and having a floor lined with iron. 4. The design, drawn and 
painted by hand, was painted on each piece of china.* 5. Seeing a 
crowd in the street, he ran to the door. 6. Surrounded by familiar 
faces, he breathed freely again. 7. The boy, having finished his task, 
went to play. 8. Having fmishe'd his work, he left early. 9. This 
being true, your whole argument falls. 10. Words poured forth from 
burning hearts are sure to kindle the hearts of others.* 11. Firmly 
built with rafters of oak, the house of the farmer stood on the side of 
the hill commanding the sea.* 12. The girl standing yonder won the 
prize.* 13. How can a man cradled in luxury's lap look without 
pity upon the scene !* 14. I am now ready to teach, having carefully 
studied the subject. 



PART III 



PROPERTIES AND SYNTAX OF THE 
PARTS OF SPEECH 

146. The properties of nouns and pronouns are number, 
gender, person, and case. 

Number 

147. Number is that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
by which it denotes one or more than one. 

148. There are two numbers: the singular and the 
plural. 

149. The singular number is that form or use of a noun 
or a pronoun that denotes one person or thing; as, boy, 
book, he. 

150. The plural number is that form or use of a noun 
or pronoun that denotes more than one person or thing; 
as, boys, books, they. 

Formation of the Plural of Nouns 

151. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding s 
to the singular ; as, book, books, boy, boys. 

152. Nouns whose last sound will not readily unite 
with s form the plural by adding es to the singular; as, 
bench, benches; fox, foxes. 

153. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form 
the plural by changing y to i and adding es; as, lady, 
ladies; daisy, daisies. 

154. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form 
the plural by adding s; as, valley, valleys; alley, alleys. 

45 



46 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

155. Most nouns ending in / or fe form the plural by- 
changing / or fe to v and adding es; as, life, lives; half, 
halves. 

The following nouns ending in / or fe form the plural by adding s ; 
chief, brief, proof, strife, roof, hoof, handkerchief, kerchief, safe, scarf, 
surf, turf, gulf. 

156. Some nouns form the plural irregularly; as, man, 
men; child, children; woman, women; foot, feet; ox, oxen; 
mouse, mice. 

157. Nouns ending in o form the plural by adding s 
or es. The words piano, portico, banjo, memento, chromo, 
dynamo, halo, octavo, proviso, solo, folio, portfolio, studio, 
cameo, and a few others add s; but calico, cargo, potato, 
tomato, tornado, negro, motto, echo, hero, embargo, mosquito, 
volcano, veto, etc., add es. 

158. Figures, letters, and signs form the plural by adding 
the apostrophe (') and the letter s; as, the 5's and the 9's; 
the i's and the t's; the x's and the -h. 

159. Words commonly used as other parts of speech when 
used as nouns form the plural by adding s; as, the whys and 
the wherefores; the ifs and the buts. 

160. News, molasses, and names of sciences ending in 
ics are always singular; as, mathematics, politics, optics, 
etc. 

161. A few nouns have the same form for both the 
singular and the plural; as, deer, sheep, salmon, mackerel, 
trout, apparatus, series, species, corps, etc. 

The number of a noun having the same form for both the singular 
and the plural can be determined only by its meaning in the sentence. 

162. The following nouns are always plural : goods, 
ashes, annals, mumps, morals, trousers, scissors, shears, 
scales, victuals, nuptials, oats, spectacles, tidings, proceeds, 
clothes, and riches. 

163. In compound nouns the part that names the object 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS 47 

is made plural; as, steamboat, steamboats; brother-in-law, 
brothers-in-law ; commander-in-chief, commanders-in-chief; 
major-general, major-generals. 

164. The plural of words like cupful, spoonful, basket- 
ful, etc., when the reference is to the quantity measured, 
is formed in the regular way; as, cupful, cupfuls; spoon- 
ful, spoonfuls, etc. But if the reference is to the number 
of cups, spoons, etc., the plural is written cups full, spoons 
full, etc. 

165. Many nouns from foreign languages form the plural 
according to the rules of those languages ; as, memorandum, 
memoranda; formula, formulae; phenomenon, phenomena; 
datum, data; erratum, errata', basis, bases; crisis, crises; 
axis, axes; terminus, termini. 

Many of these words in common use have also the English plural ; 
as, memorandum, memorandums; formula, formulas. 

Plural of Proper Nouns 

166. Proper nouns usually form the plural by adding s; 
as, the Washingtons; the Lincolns. But when the last 
sound will not readily unite with s, the plural is formed 
by adding es; as, the Joneses. 

167. When the name is preceded by a title, either the 
name or the title may be made plural ; as, the Miss Browns, 
or the Misses Brown. 

168. When a numeral precedes the title, the name is 
always made plural; as, the two Miss Browns. 

169. When Christian names are used, the title may be 
made plural, or it may be repeated; as, Misses Mary 
and Kate Brown, or Miss Mary and Miss Kate Brown. 

170. When the title precedes different names, the title 
is made plural ; as, Messrs. Brown and Jones ; Drs. Smith 
and Robinson ; Mesdames Smith, Baker, and Adams. 



48 



ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 



Exercise 


26 




Write the plural of the following nouns: 




lady loaf turkey- 


survey 


spoonful 


folio cuff crisis 


basis 


terminus 


theory alley chimney 


match 


memorandum 


duty tooth Miss Henry 


gulf 


attorney 


ally Mr. Colby lily 


life 


company 



Gender 

171. Gender is that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
that distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 

172. There are four genders : the masculine, the fem- 
inine, the common, and the neuter. 

173. The masculine gender denotes males; as, man, 
king, he. 

174. The feminine gender denotes females ; as, woman, 
queen, she. 

175. The common gender denotes males or females, or 
both; as, students, parents, they. 

176. The neuter gender denotes objects without sex; 
as, tree, stone, Boston, it. 

177. Gender is denoted in three ways — 

1. By the use of a prefix ; as, man-servant, maid-servant; 
he-goat, she-goat. 

2. By the use of a suffix; as, host, hostess; prince, 
princess; hero, heroine; emperor, empress; czar, czarina. 

3. By the use of different words; as, man, woman; 
boy, girl; king, queen; nephew, niece; sir, madam. 

The tendency of the present day is to apply some nouns denoting 
occupations, such as editor, author, doctor, instructor, chairman, poet, 
etc., to persons of either sex. 

178. When neuter nouns represent objects possessing 
strength, size, sublimity, etc., they are referred to as mas- 
culine, and when they represent objects possessing gentle- 
ness, peace, beauty, etc., they are referred to as feminine. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS 



49 



Example : The sun hath no need to boast of his bright- 
ness, nor the moon of her effulgence. 

179. In referring to children or to the lower animals, 
sex is generally disregarded, and the neuter form it is used. 

Example: The child has hurt its hand. 

Exercise 27 

Give the gender of the following nouns and pronouns, 
and, where it is possible, give the word of the opposite 
gender: 



he 


heir 


count 


nephew 


executor 


sir 


king 


person 


cashier 


daughter 


man 


poet 


doctor 


widower 


bachelor 


duke 


uncle 


worker 


brother 


bookkeeper 


book 


actor 


cousin 


husband 


instructor 


tree 


chair 


master 


heroine 


bridegroom 


host 


clerk 


author 


teacher 


man-servant 



Person 

180. Person is that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
that denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the 
person or thing spoken of. 

181. There are three persons : the first, the second, and 
the third. 

182. The first person denotes the speaker. 
Examples : I shall be pleased to see you. We shall not 

go for some time. 

183. The second person denotes the person spoken to. 
Examples: James, please lend me your knife. You 

should strive to speak correctly. 

184. The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of. 

Examples: Ridpath was a great historian. He will be 
here soon. 

A noun is in the first person only when in apposition with a pronoun 



50 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

in the first person : as, "We, the people of the United States, do ordain 
and establish this Constitution. 

A noun is in the second person only when used in direct address; 
as, "James, please come here." 

Case 

185. Case is that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
that indicates its relation to other words in the sentence. 

186. There are three cases: the nominative, the ob- 
jective, and the possessive, 

187. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case when 
it is used — 

1. As the subject of a verb; as, "Perseverance is the 
road to success." "He is at home." 

2. As a predicate noun or pronoun; as, "Fame is the 
fragrance of heroic deeds." "It is I." 

3. In apposition with a noun or pronoun in the nomi- 
native case ; as, "Robert Burns, the poet, was a Scotchman." 
"This is my brother, he of whom I have often spoken." 

4. As the subject of a participle in an abridged clause ; 
as, "The rain having ceased, we pursued our journey." 
"He having returned, we resumed our discussion."- 

5. As a noun of address; as, "Young man, keep your 
record clean." 

188. A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when 
it is used — 

1. As the direct object of a verb; as, "Every great 
thought alters the world.'' "I saw him." 

2. As the object of a preposition; as, "Every flower 
is a hint of God's mercy." "I have heard of him." 

3. In apposition with a noun or pronoun in the objec- 
tive case ; as, "We heard Mr. Spurgeon, the great London 
preacher." "I saw your brother, him of whom I heard 
you speak." 

4. As the indirect object of a verb ; as, "He made 
Mr. Brown a coat." "He gave me a book." 



SYNTAX OF NOUNS 51 

5. As the subject of an infinitive ; as, "I know the man 
to be truthful." "I know him to be truthful." 

6. As the predicate complement of an infinitive having 
a subject ; as, "I know him to be the right man." "I know 
it to be Mm." 

7. As the objective complement of a verb; as, "They 
appointed him chairman." 

8. As the adverbial objective, a noun used without a 
preposition to express time, distance, measure, value, etc., 
as, "He walked a mile." "It is worth a dollar." 

189. A noun is in the possessive case when it is used — 

1. To denote ownership; as, "John's book." 

2. To denote authorship ; as, "Webster's dictionary." 

3. Merely to limit another noun; as, "six months' 
interest;" "men's clothing." 

A noun in the possessive case always modifies another noun, ex- 
pressed or understood; as, ''John's book was torn." "This is John's 
(book)." 

SYNTAX OF NOUNS 

190. Syntax is that part of grammar that treats of the 
arrangement, relation, and agreement of words in sentences. 

Since nouns have the same nominative and objective case forms, 
no error can be made in their use in these constructions; but nouns 
in the possessive case have distinct forms, and hence, require attention. 

Formation of the Possessive Case of Nouns 

191. The possessive case of singular nouns is formed by 
adding the apostrophe (') and the letter s to the simple 
form of the noun ; as, boy, boy's; book, book's ; Brown, 
Brown's. 

When, however, the addition of the apostrophe and s produces 
an unpleasant hissing sound, the apostrophe alone may be used; 
as, Moses' law; Burns' poems. 

192. Plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by 
adding the apostrophe alone ; as, ladies' hats ; boys' books. 



52 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

193. Plural nouns not ending in s form the possessive 
like singular nouns, by adding the apostrophe and s; as, 
men's clothing; women's hats; children's shoes. 

194. When two or more nouns denote joint ownership, 
the possessive is formed by adding the sign to the last 
word only ; as, Barnum & Bailey's circus ; Powers & Lyons' 
publications. 

195. When two or more nouns denote separate owner- 
ship, the sign is added to each noun; as, Webster's and 
Worcester's dictionary; Brown's and Smith's store. 

Observe that in such expressions as "Brown's and Smith's store," 
the noun store retains the singular form, for the reason that store is 
understood after Brown's. "Brown's and Smith's stores" would 
mean that Brown and Smith each own two or more stores. 

196. Compound nouns form the possessive by adding 
the sign of the possessive to the last word only; as, my 
brother-in-law's home; the attorney-general's opinion. 

197. When the possessive is followed by a noun in 
apposition, or by a prepositional phrase, the sign of the 
possessive is added to the word immediately preceding the 
modified noun; as, David the psalmist's reign; the queen 
of England's reign. 

While it is preferable to add the possessive sign to the appositive 
noun in such expressions as, "I bought the coat at Brown, the tailor's," 
it is also correct to add the possessive sign to both nouns, or to the 
first only; as, "I bought the coat at Brown's, the tailor's," or "I 
bought the coat at Brown's, the tailor." 

198. The phrases anybody else, somebody else, nobody 
else, etc., form the possessive by adding the sign of the 
possessive at the end of the phrase ; as, anybody else's hat ; 
somebody else's umbrella. 

199. When a noun modifies a verbal noun, it is in the 
possessive case and must have the possessive case form. 

Example: I did not think of John's studying English. 



MISUSED NOUNS 53 

Exercise 28 

Form the possessives in the following sentences: 
1. Two months interest is due. 2. Have you any doubt of Johns 
coming? 3. He wore an ample cloak of sheeps wool. 4. The soldiers 
tents were guarded while they slept. 5. We carry a complete line 
of mens, boys, womens, girls, and childrens shoes. 6. James found 
a lady watch. 7. We received Mr. Jones report this morning. 8. We 
enjoyed Mary, William, and Johns visit very much. 9. I did not 
think of Mary coming so soon. 10. We have a full line of teachers 
registers. 11. The Retail Grocers Association meets in Washington 
in July. 12. Brown & Burns store has been sold. 13. I would not 
take anybody else word for it. 14. We have both Websters and 
Worcesters dictionary for reference. 15. We have not yet received 
the report of your last years business. 16. I have both Thackeray 
and Dickens works in my library. 17. You have taken someone else 
umbrella. 18. Kindness was one of Peter the Greats virtues. 19. We 
take the Ladies Home Journal, The Youths Companion and Mclntoshs 
Monthly. 20. We will send the goods on ten days trial. 21. Are 
you going to attend the National Commercial Teachers Federation? 
22. I have no time to listen to Johns or James talk. 23. He listened 
neither to the physician nor to the lawyers advice. 24. Henry Smith 
& Bro. factory is closed for repairs. 25. Hutchinson Bros, mill will 
be completely remodeled. 26. We should like three weeks or a months 
notice in case you decide to change. 27. If you will permit us to ship 
the goods at once, we will give you sixty days time. 

MISUSED NOUNS 

Amount, number, quantity. — Amount means "the sum 
total, or aggregate," and is used of numbers or quantities; 
as, "I do not know the amount of his expenditures." Quan- 
tity is used of things that are weighed or measured ; as, 
"He raised a large quantity of grain." Number is used of 
things that are counted; as, "The grain was harvested by 
a number of men." 

Balance, rest, remainder. — Balance is a commercial term, 
meaning the difference between the two sides of an account ; 
as, "There is a small balance still due us." Rest is used of 



54 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

both persons and things and of large as well as of small 
parts ; as, "The rest of the boys will go soon." Remainder 
is used only of things and denotes a comparatively small 
part; as, "They will ship the remainder of the goods at 
your convenience." 

Center, middle. — Center is applied to circular or spherical 
bodies. It means a point; as, "The center of a circle or 
ball." Middle means a general location. It may be a line 
or a space; as, "The middle of the street." 

Character, reputation. — Character is what one really is; 
reputation is what one is thought to be ; as, "I know nothing 
of his character; but his reputation is good." 

Council, counsel. — Council means a body of persons elected 
to assist in the administration of government or to legislate ; 
as, "The city council meets monthly." Counsel means one 
who gives advice, to advise, advice; as, "The counsel for 
the defense counseled the plaintiff's counsel to give different 
counsel to his client." 

Depository, depositary. — Depositary denotes a person with 
whom something is deposited. Depository, a place where 
something is deposited. Thus, a bank is a depository (not 
depositary). 

Emigrant, immigrant. — An emigrant is one who leaves a 
country. The e=ex, out of. An immigrant is one who 
comes into a country. The im=in, into. Thus, a person 
who leaves England and comes to America is an emigrant 
from that country, and an immigrant to this country. 

Libel, slander. — These words are not synonymous. Libel 
differs from slander in that the former is written and pub- 
lished, while the latter is spoken. 

Majority, plurality. — A majority is more than half the 
whole number. A plurality is the excess of votes received 
by one candidate over those received by the next highest, 
and is not necessarily a majority when there are more than 
two candidates. Thus, in an election, if A receives 400 



MISUSED NOUNS 55 

votes, B 300 votes, and C 200, A receives a plurality, though 
not a majority. 

Partition, petition. — A partition is that which separates 
anything into distinct parts ; a dividing line or boundary ; 
as, "A partition fence." A petition is a request; as, "The 
right of petition is sacred." 

Party, person. — Party should not be used in the sense of 
person; as, "I know a person (not party) whom you can 
get to do the work. Party is properly used as a legal term 
or to designate a number of persons in a group ; as, " Party 
of the first part." "Our party will leave next week." 

Precedent, president. — A precedent is something that has 
occurred that is considered as an established rule or an 
authorized example; as, "Such an act is without a prec- 
edent." 

Preventive, preventative. — Preventative is an obsolete 
form; use preventive; as, "This is a preventive for colds." 

Principal, principle. — Principal means chief ; highest in 
rank ; money at interest ; as, "He is principal of the Central 
High School." Principle means the source or cause from 
which a thing proceeds ; as, "Always try to comprehend the 
principles of the subject taught." 

Receipt, recipe. — Receipt, in the sense of a formula for a 
pudding, etc., is preferable to recipe, since recipe is commonly 
restricted to medical prescriptions; as, "She gave me a 
receipt for making a cake." 

Specialty, speciality. — Specialty is an occupation that 
embraces only one branch of a given kind of industry; as, 
"The tea trade is our specialty." Speciality is a distinguish- 
ing characteristic of any species, person, or thing; as, 
"The speciality of Byron's writings is its passionateness." 

Statue, stature, statute. — Statue means a figure made of 
some solid substance. Stature means natural height of a 
person. Statute means a law; as, "It was determined by 



56 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

statute that the statue should be equal in stature to the 
original." 

Stimulus, stimulant. — Stimulus is that which impels or 
urges on; as, "Ambition is a stimulus to hard work." 
Stimulant denotes that which stimulates the system; as, 
"Coffee is a stimulant." 

Exercise 29 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. The book treats of the practical application of the principles — 
principals of grammar. 2. Many think that immigration — emigration 
to this country should be restricted by law. 3. There was much 
discussion in the counsel — council over the measure. 4. Begin the 
heading near the middle — center of the page. 5. We will ship the 
balance — rest — remainder of your goods in a few days. 6. Delaware 
produces a large number — quantity — amount of peaches every year. 
7. Have you a good receipt — recipe for plum pudding? 8. The offer 
of a reward is often a stimulus — stimulant to success. 9. Which of 
you, by taking thought, can add one cubit to his statute — stature — 
statue? 10. He is council — counsel for some corporation. 11. The 
table stood in the center — middle of the room. 12. The principal — 
principle thing that the principle — principal did was, as a matter of 
principle — principal, to draw interest on the principal — principle due. 
13. One could see any amount — number — quantity of automobiles at 
the races. 14. The remainder — rest — balance of the evening was 
devoted to games. 15. Thousands of emigrants— immigrants come 
to this country every year. 16. The statute — stature — statue was of 
white marble, and was equal to the statute — stature — statue of an 
ordinary man. 17. The doctor administered a powerful stimulus — 
stimulant to the patient. 18. No man will take council — counsel, but 
every man will take money ; therefore, money is better than counsel — 
council. 19. He is not a party — person whom I care to recommend. 

20. In an election, forty-five votes were cast for A, thirty-five for B, 
and fifteen f or C ; A has, therefore, a majority — plurality of ten votes. 

21. They make a speciality — specialty of automobile accessories. 

22. Iowa produces a great amount — quantity of corn every year. 

23. I know that his reputation — character is good, but I know nothing 
of his character — reputation. 24. We will pay the rest — balance — 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 



57 



remainder of our account in a few days. 25. A path runs through 
the middle — center of the park. 26. The doctor gave me a recipe — 
receipt for a liniment, which I have found excellent for sprains. 
27. Emigration — immigration is one of the principle — principal causes 
of the increase of our population. 28. The city council — counsel will 
meet tonight. 29. They found a bullet in the center — middle of the 
ball. 30. The principal — principle is $200; interest, $20. 

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 

200. Declension is the change that pronouns undergo 
to express their relations of person, number, gender, and 
case. 

Simple Personal Pronouns 







FIRST PER 


SON 




Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 




Singular 
I 

my, mine 
me 




Plural 
we 

our, ours 
us 






SECOND PERSON 




Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 




Singular 
thou 

thy, thine 
thee 




Plural 
you 

your, yours 
you 






THIRD PERSON 




Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


Singular 
Masculine Feminine 
he she 
his her, hers 
him her 


Plural 
Neuter Mas. Fern. Neuter 
it they 
its their, theirs 
it them 



Relative and Interrogative Pronouns 





Singular 


Plural 


Nominative 


who 


who 


Possessive 


whose 


whose 


Objective 


whom 


whom 



58 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 

201. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
gender, and number, but its case is determined by its use 
in the sentence. 

Failure to make the pronoun agree with its antecedent, especially 
in number, is a very frequent error ; in fact, one of the most common 
violations of the rules of grammar. 

Special Rules 

1. When a pronoun represents two or more antecedents 
connected by and, it must be plural. 

Example: Patience and diligence should have their 
places in every man's character. 

When, however, the antecedents are but different names of the 
same person or thing, the pronoun must be singular; as, "Our friend 
and teacher (one person) has gone to his home." 

2. When two or more antecedents connected by and are 
preceded by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular. 

Examples : Each day and each hour brings its own duty. 
Every bush and tree is putting forth its leaves. 

3. When two or more singular antecedents are connected 
by or or nor, the pronoun must be singular. 

Examples: Either Mary or Ellen will lend you her 
pencil. Neither James nor Harry recited Ms lesson well. 

4. When two or more antecedents connected by or or 
nor are of different numbers, the plural should be placed 
last, and the pronoun should agree with it in the plural. 

Examples : If you see him or his friends, tell them that 
I should like to see them. Neither the general nor his 
soldiers felt that they would be defeated. 

5. When two or more antecedents are connected by as 
well as, and also, but not, with, together with, in addition to, 
or similar connectives, the pronoun must agree in number 
with the first. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 59 

Examples : The father, as well as the sons, did his duty. 
Honesty, and labor also, will have its reward. 

6. When a pronoun represents a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of unity, the pronoun must be singular. 

Example: The society will hold its annual meeting 
tonight. 

7. When a pronoun represents a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must be plural. 

Example : The jury were divided in their opinions. 

8. When the antecedent is a noun of the singular number, 
common gender, it is usually represented by a pronoun of 
the singular number, masculine gender. 

Example : Every member must prepare his lesson at 
once. 

When, however, special accuracy of gender is desired, a pronoun 
of the masculine gender and one of the feminine may be used ; as, 
"Every member must prepare his or her own lesson." When the 
antecedent is known to be feminine, a pronoun of the feminine gender 
is required ; as., "Every member of the class (composed of girls only) 
must prepare her lesson at once." 

9. When two or more singular antecedents are of differ- 
ent genders, each antecedent must be represented by a 
pronoun of its own gender. 

Example: No boy or girl should neglect his or her 
lessons. 

Repetitions of this kind can be avoided by using a noun of the 
common gender and employing a pronoun of the masculine gender; 
as, "No pupil should neglect his lessons." 

10. When singular pronouns of different persons are 
used together, courtesy requires that the pronoun of the 
second person be placed first; the pronoun of the third 
person, second; and the pronoun of the first person, last. 

Example : You and he may go. He and I will go. 
You, he, and I will go. 

11. When plural pronouns of different persons are used 
together, courtesy requires that the pronoun of the first 



60 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

person be placed first; the pronoun of the second person, 
second; and the pronoun of the third person, last. 

Examples: We and they will go tomorrow. We, you, 
and they are responsible for these conditions. 

Cautions 

1. Anyone, anybody, each, everyone, everybody, either, 
neither, and somebody, etc., are singular, and hence, require 
pronouns in the singular number. 

Examples : Anybody in his (not their) senses would not 
have done that. Somebody has left his (not their) umbrella. 

2. Errors are frequently made by making the pronoun 
agree in person and number with some word near the 
antecedent instead of with the antecedent itself. 

Examples : Each of us should do his (not our) part. In 
this sentence, his is the correct pronoun, agreeing with 
each, not with us. 

Exercise 30 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. The firm is nearly ready to move into its — their new building. 
2. Neither of them has paid their — his dues. 3. Every season has 
its — their peculiar power of striking the mind. 4. Neither the teacher 
nor the pupils felt that he — they had reason to regret his — their action. 
5. Society is not always answerable for the conduct of their — its mem- 
bers. 6. Each pupil was asked to name their — his favorite flower. 
7. Each was the center of his— their own fair world. 8. If anybody 
calls, ask them — him to wait. 9. Every man is entitled to liberty of 
conscience and freedom of opinion if he does not pervert them — it to 
the injury of others. 10. Any person violating this rule does so at 
their — his own risk. 11. One of the boys in the office said he — they 
would deliver the package. 12. Each gave what they — he could. 
13. One of the girls will give you her — their assistance. 14. Everyone 
must judge of his — their own feelings. 15. A person who is rude in 
his — their table manners will be disliked. 16. Every citizen and soldier 
must be ready to guard their — his country's honor. 17. The jury 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 61 

were divided in their — its opinion. 18. Either of the boys will lend 
you their — his knife. 19. Not one of them saw their — his mistake. 
20. One or the other was wrong in his — their view of it. 21. Everyone 
should give their — his name every time he — they writes. 22. Anyone 
can do this if he — they tries. 23. One of us will give the matter our — 
his attention at once. 24. Is either of the girls going to take her — 
their music lesson today? 25. Many a brave man met his — their 
death in the war. 26. He said that he or his brother would assist you 
to the best of his — their ability. 

Case Forms of Pronouns 

NOMINATIVE FORMS POSSESSIVE FORMS OBJECTIVE FORMS 

I 

we 

you 

he 

she 

it 

they 

who 

Caution in the Use of Case Forms 

202. Since pronouns have distinct forms for the nomi- 
native, the objective, and the possessive case, care must be 
exercised to use the correct form. 

1. Use the nominative form after copulative verbs. 
Examples : It is he. It was I. It might have been they. 
In such constructions as "It seems to be he," '"'It was supposed 

to be they," seems to be and was supposed to be may be called copu- 
lative verb phrases; and hence, require the nominative form after 
them. 

2. Use the objective form after an infinitive having a 
subject. 

Example : I knew it to be him. 

Since the same case is required after a copulative verb or an in- 
finitive as before it, it follows that the pronoun after an infinitive 
is in the objective case, for the reason that the subject of an infinitive 
is always in the objective case. 



my, mine 


me 


our, ours 


us 


your, yours 


you 


his 


him 


her, hers 


her 


its 


it 


their, theirs 


them 


whose 


whom 



62 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

3. Be careful to use the correct form of the pronoun 
when it is a member of a compound element. 

Examples : He saw John and me. (Not John and I.) 
This is for Harry and her. (Not Harry and she.) 

In such constructions, the correct form is at once seen when one 
member of the compound element is dropped. Thus, one might 
say, "He saw John and /," but no one would say, "He saw I." 

4. When a pronoun modifies a verbal noun, use the 
possessive form. 

Example : I did not think of his coming so soon. 

5. Do not use the apostrophe in forming the possessive 
case of pronouns. 

Examples: The bird hurt its wing. (Not it's wing.) 
This book is theirs. (Not their' s.) 

6. Exercise care in the use of the interrogative pronouns. 
Example : Whom is that for ? 

In sentences of this kind, the construction of the interrogative 
pronoun is easily seen when the sentence is changed to the declar- 
ative form; as, "That is for whom?" 

7. Be careful to use the correct form of the relative 
pronoun who. 

Example : He is a man who, I believe, can be trusted. 

In this sentence, who is correct, because it is the subject of the 
verb phrase can be trusted. But in the sentence, "He is a man whom, I 
believe, we can trust," whom is correct, because it is the object of 
the verb phrase can trust. 

8. Use the objective form after the adjective like. 
Example: Students like you and her ought to advance 

rapidly. 

In such constructions the pronoun is the object of a preposition 
understood; as, "Students like (unto) you and her ought to advance 
rapidly. 

Compound Personal Pronouns 

The compound personal pronouns are myself, yourself, 
himself, herself, itself, and their plurals ourselves, yourselves, 
and themselves. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS 63 

Compound personal pronouns have two uses — 

1. Reflexive; as, "I hurt myself." 

The reflexive use of the pronoun represents the subject 
as acting upon itself. 

2. Emphatic; as, "I did it myself" 

Caution 

Do not use compound personal pronouns as subjects, 
attribute complements, or objects, except in an emphatic 
or a reflexive sense. 

Examples : Please accept this as a present from Mary 
and me (not myself). It is for me (not myself). John and 
I (not myself) expect to go. 

Exercise 31 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 

1. It is me — I, be not afraid. 2. Her brother is taller than she — her. 
3. All of us — we girls had a good time. 4. He said that he would 
invite you and me — J. 5. They — them that honor me, I will honor. 
6. I know him — he to be the man. 7. If I were she — her, I would not 
go. 8. I believe it to be she — her. 9. It was not them — they. 10. Who 
— whom did she ask for? 11. She said that she would write to you and 
me — I. 12. It was not me — I, it was either you or he — him. 13. It 
may have been us — we who — whom you saw. 14. Is this for James and 
me — /, or for Ellen and her — she? 15. Let James and / — me go too. 
16. May James and i" — me go? 17. Everyone has gone to the lake 
but you and me — /. 18. If I were him — he, I should not do so. 
19. They said for you and I — me to come soon. 20. Boys like you 
and me — I are expected to do what is right without being told. 21. I 
gave the watch to the man who — whom I thought was the owner. 22. I 
gave the watch to the man who — whom I took to be the owner. 23. He 
left an invitation for Jack and I — me to visit him next Christmas. 
24. It was she — her who told it, not me — I. 25. They lost no more 
than we — us. 26. Students like you and she — her ought to advance 
rapidly. 27. You know who — whom I thought it was. 28. You know 
who — whom it was thought to be. 29. I thought that her brother and 



64 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

she — her were going with us. 30. You may send whoever — whomever 
you wish. 31. Everybody has gone except she — her and / — me. 
32. They invited we — us boys to go with them. 33. I heard of him — 
his going away. 34. There is very little in common between us and 
they — them. 35. There was no one at home but mother and me — J. 
36. John's parents oppose him — his quitting school. 37. I am sure 
these books were intended for you and J — me. 38. Between you and 
i" — me, this is none of his business. 39. They invited Fanny and J — 
me to come to the wedding. 40. Who — whom do you think will be 
nominated? 41. Who — whom do you think they will elect? 42. Will 
you permit us, Charlie and me — J, to go to the game tomorrow? 
43. In fact, I know it to be he — him. 44. I know who — whom I serve. 
45. Father left his money to Mary and I — me. 46. Who — whom did 
he refer to, he — him or J — me? 47. It was him — he whom — who I 
meant. 48. Do you believe it is they — them? 49. We were betrayed 
by those who — whom we thought we could trust implicitly. 

PROPERTIES OF THE VERB 

203. The properties of the verb are voice, mode, tense, 
person, and number. 

204. Voice is that form of a verb that shows whether 
the subject acts or is acted upon. 

205. There are two voices : the active and the passive. 

206. The active voice represents the subject as acting 
upon an object. 

Example : Columbus discovered America. 

207. The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
upon. 

Example : America was discovered by Columbus. 

Observe that the object of the verb in the active voice becomes 
the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice, and that 
the subject of the verb in the active voice becomes the object of a 
preposition when the verb is changed to the passive voice. 

Mode 

208. Mode is that form or use of a verb that indicates 
the manner in which the action or state is expressed. 



PROPERTIES OF THE VERB 65 

209. There are three modes: the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, and the imperative. 

210. The indicative mode is that form or use of a verb 
that asserts something as a fact. It is also used to express 
a condition or a supposition thought of as a fact, or to ask 
a question. 

Examples: Education expands and elevates the mind. 
Though she is young, she is well qualified. Are you going? 

211. The imperative mode is that form or use of a verb 
that expresses a command, a request, or an entreaty. 

Examples : Do it now. Kindly give me that book. 

212. The subjunctive mode is that form or use of a 
verb that expresses a doubt, a supposition contrary to 
fact, a future contingency, or a wish. 

Examples : If this be treason, make the most of it. If 
I were you, I would go. I wish I were a musician. 

A verb in the subjunctive mode is always found in a subordinate 
clause, which is usually introduced by one of the conjunctions if, 
though, unless, except or lest. 

While some writers do not make a careful distinction between 
the subjunctive and the indicative mode, the subjunctive mode 
should be used — 

1. To express a supposition contrary to conditions or facts. 
Example: If I were you (but I am not), I should go. 

2. To express a wish. 

Example: I wish I were a musician. 

The subjunctive form of is, am, and are is be. The subjunctive 
form of any other verb is the same as the plural form; as, "If he 
be wrong, he will admit it." "If they be wrong, they will admit it." 
"I wish he were willing to go." "I wish they were willing to go." 

Tense 

213. Tense is that form or use of a verb that denotes 
the time of an action or an event. 

214. There are three divisions of time : the present, the 
past, and the future. Each division has two tenses: a 
primary and a secondary. 



66 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

215. The primary tenses are the present, the past, and 
the future. 

216. The secondary tenses are the present perfect, the 
past perfect, and the future perfect. 

217. The present tense denotes present time. 
Examples : I write. The boys are playing. 

218. The present tense is used — 

1. To express a general truth; as, "Perseverance con- 
quers all things." 

2. To express what is habitual or customary; as, "The 
train arrives at 10 a. m." 

3. To express future time when the context shows that 
the future is referred to; as, "I leave tomorrow." 

4. To express past events to make the description more 
vivid ; as, "Napoleon at once crosses the river, engages the 
enemy, and gains a complete victory." This is sometimes 
called the historical present. 

219. The past tense denotes past time. 

Examples : I saw him yesterday. I was working when 
you came. 

220. The future tense denotes what will take place in 
future time. 

Examples: I shall leave tonight. They will he going 
soon. 

Shall and will are the signs of the future tense. 

221. The present perfect tense denotes an action or 
an event as completed at the present time. 

Examples: I have finished my work. He has been 
studying. 

Have and has are the signs of the present perfect tense. 

222. The past perfect tense denotes an action or an 
event as completed before a stated past time. 

Example : I had written before I received the letter. 
Had is the sign of the past perfect tense. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 



67 



223. The future perfect tense denotes an action or an 
event as completed at or before a certain future time. 

Examples : I shall have finished my work before you 
receive this. He will have completed his course by that 
time. 

Shall have and will have are the signs of the future perfect tense 
in the indicative mode. 

Person and Number 

224. The verb is said to agree with its subject in person 
and number; that is, it undergoes certain changes to con- 
form to the person and number of its subject. 

The verb be has the following person and number forms: 





PRESENT TENSE 




Singular 




Plural 


I am 




We are 


You are 




You are 


He is 


PAST TENSE 


They are 


I was 




We were 


You were 




You were 


He was 




They were 



225. With the exception of the verb be, the only in- 
flection for number and person in common use is in the 
third person, singular, present and present perfect tenses, 
which requires the verb or the auxiliary to end in s. 

Examples: The boy writes. The boy has written his 
letter. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 

226. According to form, verbs are divided into two 
classes: regular and irregular. 

227. A regular verb is one whose past tense and per- 
fect participle are formed by adding d or ed to the simple 



68 



ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 



form of the verb; as, present, live; past, lived; perfect 
participle, lived. 

228. An irregular verb is one whose past tense and 
perfect participle do not end in d or ed; as, present, do; 
past, did; perfect participle, done. 

229. The principal parts of a verb are the present tense, 
the past tense, and the perfect participle. 



Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs 

When a verb has two forms, the preferable form is given first. 

Verbs marked with the star (*) are those in which errors in the 
use of the past tense and perfect participle are most often made, 
and hence, they should be given special attention. 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Perfect Participle 


am 


was 


been 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


bear (to carry) 


bore, bare 


borne 


become 


became 


become 


begin* 


began 


begun 


bid (to command) 


bade 


bidden 


blow* 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


bring* 


brought 


brought 


burst 


burst 


burst 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


come* 


came 


come 


do* 


did 


done 


draw* 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk, drank 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat* 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 



69 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 




Perfect Participle 


freeze* 


froze 




frozen 


get 


got 




got, gotten 


give 


gave 




given 


go* 


went 




gone 


grow* 


grew 




grown 


hang* (to suspend) 


hung 




hung 


hang (to take life) 


hanged 




hanged 


know* 


knew 




known 


lay* (to place) 


laid 




laid 


lie* (to recline) 


lay 




lain 


pay 


paid 




paid 


ride 


rode 




ridden 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 




risen 


run* 


ran 




run 


see* 


saw 




seen 


set* (to place) 


set 




set 


shake 


shook 




shaken 


shrink 


shrank, 


shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


sit* (to be seated) 


sat 




sat 


slay 


slew 




slain 


speak* 


spoke, i 


spake 


spoken 


spring 


sprang, 


sprung 


sprung 


steal 


stole 




stolen 


strike 


struck 




struck, stricken 


swear 


swore 




sworn 


swell 


swelled 




swelled, swollen 


swim 


swam, i 


swum 


swum 


take* 


took 




taken 


teach 


taught 




taught 


tear 


tore 




torn 


throw* 


threw 




thrown 


wake 


waked, 


woke 


waked, woke 


wear 


wore 


* 


worn 


weave 


wove, weaved 


woven, weaved 


write 


wrote 




written 



70 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Past Tense and Perfect Participle 

1. Use the auxiliaries have, has, had, shall have, will 
have, has been, had been, etc., with the perfect participle of 
the verb to form the present perfect, the past perfect, and 
the future perfect tense. 

Examples: I have seen him. (Not I seen him.) He 
has done the work. (Not He done the work.) I had written 
the letter before you came. (Not I written the letter before 
you came.) 

2. Prefix some form of the verb be {am, is, are, was, 
were) to the perfect participle of a transitive verb to form 
the passive voice. 

Examples : The work was carefully done, 

3. Use the past tense form of the verb without an 
auxiliary to express past tense. 

Examples: I did it. We saw him. 

4. Use the perfect participle after an auxiliary verb. 
Example : He has gone home. (Not He has went home.) 

5. Use the present infinitive (the infinitive without 
have) when it refers to time coincident with or after that 
of the principal verb. 

Examples: I am glad to meet you. I had intended to 
visit you. 

6. Use the perfect infinitive (the infinitive with have) 
when it refers to time prior to that of the principal verb. 

Example: I am glad to have met you. 

After the verbs mean, expect, hope, intend, and the like, use the 
present infinitive, because one cannot mean, expect, hope, or intend 
to do something in the past. 

Exercise 32 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 

1. He had gone — went home before the storm began — begun. 2. I 
had begun — began my work before he came. 3. I saw — seen the book 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 71 

lying on the table before I began — begun to read. 4. I intended to 
go — to have gone yesterday. 5. The wind blowed — blew hard all day. 

6. I wouldn't have went — gone if I'd known — knew it was so far away. 

7. The window pane was broke — broken by James. 8. John come — ■ 
came home yesterday. 9. They all done — did exceptionally well at 
the closing exercises. 10. I should have liked to see — to have seen him. 
11. Has John come — came home yet? 12. I did — done it myself . 13. I 
had hoped to finish — to have finished the work before you came. 14. One 
can never tell whether he has chosen — chose rightly. 15. Have you 
eat — ate — eaten your dinner? 16. He would have froze — frozen to 
death if we had not saw — seen him and taken — took him home. 17. I 
had hoped to see — to have seen you at church. 18. The tree has fell — 
fallen across the road. 19. We drank — drunk some milk, and when we 
had drank — drunk enough, we went on our way. 20. I am pleased 
to have — to have had the privilege of serving you. 21. There is a leaf 
tore — torn out of my book. 22. Have you gave — given your lesson 
proper attention? 23. Has he went — gone to town? 24. Have you 
ever rode — ridden a bicycle? 25. He was reported to rescue — to have 
rescued the boy from drowning. 26. He threw — throwed a stone at me 
and ran — run for home. 27. He has ran — run a mile. 28. Was such 
a sight ever saw — seen before? 29. I am glad to have — to have had the 
opportunity of seeing Niagara Falls. 30. I saw — seen it. 31. Has he 
ever spoke — spoken to you about the matter? 32. The money was 
stole — stolen. 33. Someone has took — taken my pencil. 34. Have you 
did — done it yet? 35. I should have been glad to go — to have gone, 
although I should have found it difficult to do — to have done so. 36. How 
the boy has growed — grew — grown! 37. He give — gave me a present. 
38. Had you wrote — written the letter before I come — came in? 39. The 
bell was rang — rung at the usual time. 40. The wind blowed — blew 
furiously yesterday, and it has blowed — blew — blown even more furi- 
ously today. 41. We had drove — driven ten miles, when a storm 
come — came up. 

Sit and Set 

Sit means to recline; it is an intransitive verb. 
Example: They are sitting on the porch. 
Set means to place; it is a transitive verb. 
Example: Set the lamp on the table. 



72 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Lie and Lay 

Lie means to recline; it is an intransitive verb. 

Example: He lies there every day. 

Lay means to 'place; it is a transitive verb. 

Example: Please lay this book on the shelf. 

Observe that the verbs set and lay are transitive, and hence, al- 
ways require objects ; and that sit and lie are intransitive, and never 
take objects. In the passive voice always use the transitive verb, 
because only transitive verbs can become passive. 

Since set and lay mean to place, some form of these verbs should 
be used when a form of the verb place could be substituted; as, 
"He laid the book on the desk" ="He placed the book on the desk." 
And since lie and sit mean to recline, some form of these verbs should 
be used when a form of the verb recline could be substituted ; as, 
"The book is lying on the table" = "The book is reclining on the 
table." 

Exercise 33 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. He sat — set the pail on the bench. 2. I remember when the 
corner-stone was laid — lain. 3. I sat — set there last year. 4. Go and 
lay — lie down. 5. The coat sets — sits well. 6. When Romeo saw 
Juliet lying — laying in the casket, he lay — laid down by her side and 
drank the poison. 7. When Juliet awoke, seeing Romeo laying — lying 
beside her dead, she took a sword, which lay — laid near, and killed 
herself. 8. Please set — sit still while I am laying — lying on the couch. 
9. May I set — sit here? 10. The books are laying — lying on the table. 
11. I set — sat the basket near the tree. 12. It laid — lay where it fell. 
13. Set — sit down a moment. 14. He has been setting — sitting there 
all afternoon. 15. The bird is setting — sitting on its eggs. 16. Let 
them lay — lie where they are. 17. He laid — lay there for more than 
an hour. 18. I have lain — laid it there many times. 19. She has been 
sitting — setting there for a long time. 20. The book is lying — laying 
where I lay — laid it. 21. Have you laid — lain the book away? 22. He 
lay — laid the book aside and lay — laid down to rest. 

Shall and Will 

The following rules govern the ordinary uses of these 
verbs : 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 73 

1. Shall is used with / or we to express what the 
speaker expects or intends to do, or what will happen in 
the future. 

Examples: I shall go tomorrow. We shall hear from 
him within a few days. 

2. Shall is used with any subject other than J or we to 
express a promise, a command, or determination on the 
part of the speaker. 

Examples : You shall hear from me soon. (Promise.) 
Thou shalt not steal. (Command.) He shall be punished. 
(Determination.) 

3. Will is used with I or we to express determination, 
willingness, or a promise on the part of the speaker. 

Examples : I will not permit it. (Determination.) I 
will write to you tomorrow. (Promise.) 

4. Will is used with any subject other than I or we to 
express what will happen in the future. 

Example : He will soon be here. 

5. Shall is used in questions with subjects in the first 
person. 

Examples: Shall I see him for you? With other sub- 
jects, shall or will is used according as shall or will is ex- 
pected in the answer; as, "Shall you go?" Answer, "I 
shall go." (Simple futurity.) "Will you go?" Answer, 
"I willJ 9 (Promise.) 

Should and would — These words follow the same rules 
as shall and will. 

Exercise 34 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why. 
In the sentences in which either shall or will may be used, 
explain the meaning of each : 

1. I do not know when I shall — will return. 2. We shall — will not 
go if it rains. 3. He thinks she will — shall be elected. 4. I think he 
will — shall be elected. 5. We will — shall all be greatly benefited by the 



74 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

new arrangements. 6. We would — should like to grant your request, 
but we are not in a position to do so. 7. They will — shall not elect 
their candidate if we can prevent it. 8. I fear that we shall — will be 
late. 9. I shall — will never consent to his going so far away. 10. I 
am determined that you shall — will obey me. 11. I will — shall not be 
ready for some time. 12. We fear that we shall — will not be able to 
go. 13. Shall — will we go tomorrow? 14. We would — should be glad 
to hear from you. 15. Shall — will we go to the lecture this evening? 
16. You shall — will know my answer tomorrow. 17. Shall- — will you 
go to the lecture this evening ? 18. I shall — will go abroad in the spring. 
19. I will — shall be under obligation to you if you can grant me the 
favor. 20. I will — shall be disappointed if he does not come. 21. We 
shall — will be greatly obliged to you if you will — shall do it for us. 22. I 
will — shall drown, because nobody will — shall help me. 23. If he were 
here, I should — would be pleased to meet him. 24. I hope we will — 
shall be in time to get good seats. 25. We feared that we would — 
should get caught in the rain. 

SYNTAX OF THE VERB 

230. The verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

Special Rules 

1. A compound subject whose parts are connected by 
and requires a verb in the plural number. 

Examples: Time and tide wait for no man. Industry, 
energy, and honesty are essential to success. 

Exceptions 

(a) When the connected subjects are but different names of the 
same person or thing, or when the subjects name several things 
taken as one whole, the verb must be singular; as, "My old friend 
and schoolmate (one person) is in the city." "Bread and milk (mean- 
ing one kind of food) is good for children." "To rise and retire early 
(meaning the habit) is good for one's health." 

(b) When two or more singular subjects are preceded by each, 
every, or no, they are taken separately and require a singular verb ; 
as, "Every man, woman, and child was pleased with the lecture." 
"Each book and paper was found in its place." 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB 75 

(c) When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other nega- 
tive, the verb agrees with the affirmative and is understood with 
the other ; as, "Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, forms 
our true honor." 

In constructions of this kind two propositions are implied; that 
is, "Our own heart forms our true honor," and "Other men's opinions 
do not form our true honor." The verb agrees with the affirmative 
proposition and is understood with the negative. 

(d) When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb 
agrees with the first and is understood with the second; as, "Time, 
and patience also, is needed." 

2. A collective noun takes a verb in the singular number 
when the collection is thought of as one whole ; but when 
the individuals in the collection are thought of, it takes 
a verb in the plural number. 

Examples: The crowd was composed of men of every 
class. The public are often deceived by false appearances. 

While the rule governing the number of the verb and the pronoun 
used with collective nouns is somewhat lax, both the verb and the 
pronoun should, except in rare cases, be singular or both should be 
plural. Thus, "The company has advised us that it can ship the goods 
promptly," or "The company have advised us that they can ship the 
goods promptly." 

3. When a noun in the plural is used to denote a whole, 
a unit of some sort, as the title of a book, a sum of money, 
etc., a verb in the singular number is required. 

Examples: Plutarch's Lives is a good book. Five 
hundred dollars was spent. 

4. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives 
so as to mean two distinct things, a verb in the plural 
number is required. 

Example: Moral and physical education are both 
necessary. Here education must be regarded as under- 
stood after moral 

5. Two or more singular subjects connected by or or 
nor require a verb in the singular number. 

Examples: Either James or Henry is going. Neither 
James nor John is qualified to fill the position. 



76 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

6. When one of the subjects connected by or or nor 
is plural, it is placed nearest the verb and the verb agrees 
with it in the plural. 

Examples: Neither the emperor nor the generals were 
convinced. Neither the boy nor his sisters are to blame. 

7. When two or more subjects of different persons are 
connected by or or nor, the verb should be expressed with 
each subject. 

Examples : Either he is wrong, or I am. You are mis- 
taken, or he is. 

8. When two subjects are connected by the conjunction 
as well as, the verb agrees with the first. 

Examples: Money, as well as men, was needed. The 
girls, as well as their brother, deserve commendation. 

In constructions of this kind, the noun following as well as is the 
subject of a sentence, the verb of which is implied ; as, "The teacher, 
as well as the pupils, was pleased with the address," meaning, 
"The teacher was pleased with the address, as well as the pupils 
were pleased with the address." 

Cautions 

1. Do not use a plural verb with a singular subject 
modified by an adjective phrase introduced by of, with, 
together with, in addition to. etc. 

Examples : The richness of her arms and apparel was 
(not were) conspicuous in the foremost ranks. The cap- 
tain, with all the crew, was lost. The father, together 
with his two sons, was among the first to enlist. This 
amount, in addition to what I already have, is sufficient. 

2. The pronoun you takes a verb in the plural even 
when it represents only one person. 

Examples: I heard that you were coming. (Not was.) 
This caution is often violated in interrogative sentences; 
as, "Was you there?" instead of the correct form, "Were 
you there?" 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB 77 

3. When a sentence is introduced by there, the verb 
must agree with the subject, which follows the verb. 

Example: There were great claps of thunder. 

4. Do not use don't with a singular subject in the third 
person. Say "He doesn't/' "She doesn't," "It doesn't;" 
not "He don't," "She don't," "It don't." 

5. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb 
agrees with the antecedent in person and number. 

Example : The new library is one of the finest buildings 
that have ever been erected in this city. The antecedent 
of that is buildings, not one. 

In the sentence, "This is the only one of the books that is worth 
reading," the antecedent of that is one, not books. 

Exercise 35 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. Was — were you at home yesterday? 2. Which of these two books 
is — are yours? 3. Either of them is — are suitable. 4. The committee 
was — were unable to agree. 5. The wife and mother kneel — kneels in 
prayer. 6. Diligent industry, and not mean saving, produce — pro- 
duces honorable competence. 7. Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, 
bring — brings conviction. 8. Neither wealth nor wisdom is — are the 
chief thing in this life. 9. Every man, woman, and child was — were 
alarmed. 10. The greater part of the audience was — were pleased 
with the lecture. 11. A committee was — were appointed to inquire 
into the matter. 12. Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse 
was — were ever withheld from the cause in which he was engaged. 
13. A variety of pleasing objects charm — charms the eye. 14. General 
Custer, with all his men, was — were killed by the Indians. 15. Nothing 
but vain and foolish pursuits delight — delights some persons. 16. This 
book, as well as that, was — were written long ago. 17. Two thousand 
dollars is — are too much for that property. 18. Both physical and 
manual training are — is necessary. 19. Ten years has — have passed 
since I saw him last. 20. The public is — are cordially invited. 21. Mr. 
Brown, with his three sons, have — has been here for more than a month, 
22. Either the man or his son is — are willing to assist you. 23. Either 
the man or his sons is — are willing to assist you. 24. My friend and 



78 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

schoolmate is — are in the city. 25. Every book and paper was — were 
found in its place. 26. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest 
citizen, is — are protected in his rights. 27. Where was — were you? 
28. He a\ortt — doesn't like it. 29. Every house and store was — were 
burned. 30. A boat or two has — have already passed. 31. Abnor- 
mal is one of those words which has — have come in to supply a want 
in the precise statement of science. 32. Nothing but expense and 
trouble has — have grown out of the business. 33. Neither beauty, 
wealth, nor talents was — were injurious to her modesty. 34. He is 
one of those persons who has — have rare executive ability. 35. Either 
of the books treat — treats the subject fully. 

MISUSED VERBS 

Anticipate, expect, suspect, hope. — We expect that which 
we have good reason to believe will happen. We hope for 
that which we desire and have some reason to expect. 
Anticipate means to look forward to with confidence and 
pleasure. Suspect means to surmise, to mistrust; as, "I 
hope for a visit from my friend ; I expect it when he writes ; 
as the time draws near, I anticipate it with pleasure. If 
he does not come, I suspect he has deceived me." 

Calculate, intend. — Calculate means to compute, to reckon ; 
as, "He calculated the interest due on the note." Intend 
implies purpose ; as, "I intend to go soon." 

Can, may. — Can implies ability; as, "Can he pass the 
examination?" May implies permission, probability, or 
possibility; as, "May I use your knife?" "He may go." 

Emerge, immerge. — Emerge means to come out of, to 
reappear in a new state; as, "The butterfly emerges from 
the chrysalis." Immerge means to plunge into, especially 
a fluid ; as, "Some heavenly bodies immerge in the light of 
the sun." 

Learn, teach. — Learn means to acquire knowledge; 
teach means to impart it. Thus, "The instructor teaches; 
the student learns." 



PROPERTIES OF THE ADJECTIVE 79 

Like, love. — Do not use these words indiscriminately. 
Like means to be pleased with. Thus, "We like (not love) 
articles of food, flowers, dogs, etc." 

Purpose, propose. — To propose means to offer. To 
purpose means to intend. Say, "I purpose (not propose) 
to go." 

Raise, rise. — Raise, the principal parts of which are 
raise, raised, raising, raised, means to cause to rise; as, 
"She raised the window." Rise, the principal parts of which 
are rise, rose, rising, risen, means to move upward; as, 
"The bread is rising." "The river has risen." 

Stay, stop. — Stay means to remain; to tarry; as, "He 
is staying at the Palmer House." Stop means to cease from 
moving ; as, "We shall stop in Chicago on our way home." 

Exercise 36 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. Can — may I use your dictionary? 2. The father taught — learned 
the child to ride a bicycle. 3. How long do you expect to stop — stay 
in London? 4. I expect — suspect he has played a trick on me. 5. Will 
you be kind enough to tell me where I can — may find him? 6. I did 
not calculate — intend to go so soon. 7. The commission purposes — 
proposes to enlist the aid of the city council. 8. I expect — hope — 
suspect — anticipate that my brother will come soon, though I have 
not heard from him for some time? 9. There is the man who taught — 
learned me to write. 10. The river has raised — risen two feet. 11. Can 
— may I be excused for a short time? 12. President Johnson was 
taught — learned the alphabet by his wife. 13. No one may — can 
solve the problem of life. 14. I anticipate — expect — hope — suspect 
that I shall enjoy the picnic tomorrow. 15. He is stopping — staying 
with his brother. 16. May — can I go with you to the lake? 

PROPERTIES OF THE ADJECTIVE 

231. Adjectives have but one property; namely, com- 
parison. 



80 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

232. Comparison is a variation in the form of the adjec- 
tive to express different degrees of quality. 

233. There are three degrees of comparison: the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

234. The positive degree expresses a quality without 
a comparison. 

Examples: The man is tall. We climbed a high hill. 

235. The comparative degree expresses a higher or 
lower degree of quality than is expressed by the positive 
degree. 

Examples: He is the taller of the two men. He is 
older than I. 

236. The superlative degree expresses the highest or 
lowest degree of quality. 

Examples: He is the youngest boy in the class. She 
is the tallest of the three girls. 

237. Adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of 
two syllables usually form the comparative by adding er, 
and the superlative by adding est; as, tall, taller, tallest; 
able, abler, ablest. 

238. Some adjectives of two syllables and all adjectives 
of more than two syllables form the comparative by pre- 
fixing more or less to the positive degree ; and the superla- 
tive by prefixing most or least to the positive degree; as, 
fragrant, more fragrant, most fragrant; beautiful, more 
beautiful, most beautiful. 

In forming the comparison of regular adjectives of two 
syllables, affix er and est, or prefix more and most according 
to which sounds the better. 

Irregular Comparisons 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: 
Positive Comparative Superlative 

good better best 

bad, ill, evil worse worst 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE 



81 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 


little 


less 


least 


much 


more 


most 


many- 


more 


most 


late 


later, latter 


latest, last 


far 


farther 


farthest 


old 


older, elder 


oldest, eldest 


forth 


further 


furthest 


fore 


former 


foremost, first 


in, (adv.) 


inner 


inmost or innermost 


out, (adv.) 


outer 


outmost, outermost 


up 


upper 


upmost, uppermost 


nigh 


nigher 


nighest, next 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE 



239. The comparative degree of the adjective is used 
when comparing two objects. 

Example: He is the taller of the two boys. 

240. The superlative degree of the adjective is used 
when comparing three or more objects. 

Example: He is the tallest of the five brothers. 

241. When the comparative degree of an adjective is 
used with than, the thing compared must always be ex- 
cluded from the class of things with which it is compared. 

Example: Texas is larger than any other state in the 
Union. 

The sentence, "Texas is larger than any state in the Union," 
would mean that Texas is not a state in the Union, or that Texas 
is larger than itself. 

242. When the superlative degree of an adjective is 
used the latter term of comparison should not exclude 
the former if the objects compared belong to the same class. 

Example: Texas is the largest state in the Union. 

243. When a adjective is united with a noun to form 
a compound adjective, the singular form of the noun is 
used. 



82 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Example: A three-foot measure; a forty-foot lot; a 
30-day note. 

244. When a plural adjective modifies a noun, the noun 
must also be plural. 

Example : We walked three miles. (Not three mile.) 

245. When preceded by an adjective expressing number, 
pair, dozen, head, score and hundred, retain the singular 
form. 

Examples: Two dozen of eggs; four pair of shoes; 
twenty gross of pens. 

246. This and that are the only adjectives that are 
inflected for number. Use this and that with singular 
nouns, and their plurals these and those with plural nouns. 

Examples : This sort, these sorts ; that kind, those kinds. 

247. The words first and last when used with adjectives 
that express number are placed before the adjective. 

Examples : The first ten pages ; the last three lessons. 

248. Place adjectives where there can be no doubt as 
to what they are intended to modify. 

Examples : A pair of new shoes. (Not a new pair of 
shoes) ; a bouquet of fresh flowers. (Not a fresh bouquet 
of flowers.) 

249. Adjectives denoting qualities that cannot exist in 
varying degrees, such as round, square, perfect, perpendic- 
ular, etc., are not usually compared. 

Some of the best writers of English, however, compare these ad- 
jectives on the theory that they are not used in their strict sense. 

250. A is used before words beginning with a consonant 
sound. 

Examples : A boy ; a man ; a horse. 

251. An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound. 

Examples: An orange; an hour. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE 83 

252. An is used before words beginning with h when 
the accent is on the second syllable. 

Example : An historian. 

253. When two or more adjectives modify the same 
noun, the article is used before the first adjective only. 

Example: A red, white, and blue flag. (One flag.) 

254. When two or more adjectives modify different 
nouns, one of which is expressed and the rest understood, 
the article is used before each adjective. 

Example: The red and the white cottage are mine. 
Here cottage is understood after red. 

255. The article the should be used before a noun de- 
noting a class rather than an individual of a class. 

Example : The lion is the king of beasts. 

256. The article should be omitted before a noun used 
as a mere title. 

Example : The ruler of a city is called mayor. (Not a 
mayor.) 

257. When two or more nouns denoting the same 
person or thing are compared, the article should be used 
before the first noun only. 

Example: He is a better writer than speaker. 

258. # Kind of, sort of, manner of should not be followed 
by a or an. 

Examples : What kind of machine have you ? (Not 
What kind of a machine?) What manner of man is he? 
(Not What manner of a man?) 

259. When two or more nouns following each other 
denote the same person or thing, the article should be used 
before the first only. 

Example : The editor and publisher (one person) of the 
magazine was at the convention. 

260. When two or more nouns following each other 
denote different persons or things, the article should be 
used before each noun. 



84 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Example: The editor and the publisher (two persons) 
are at the convention. 

261. When two or more nouns following each other 
denote different things so closely associated in thought 
that they may be considered as forming a whole, the article 
should be used before the first noun only. 

Examples : The wheel and axle is broken. The pen and 
ink is here. 

Exercise 37 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. He lives seven mile — miles from here. 2. He measured the lot 
with a three-foot — three-feet stick. 3. Which is the older — oldest, James 
or Henry? 4. This — these kind is the more expensive — most ex-pensive 
of the two. 5. The farmer exchanged two barrels — barrel of potatoes 
for fifty pound — pounds of sugar. 6. He is the smaller — smallest of the 
two. 7. The room is twenty foot — feet square. 8. We have just re- 
turned from a five-mile — five-miles drive. 9. We saw a herd of ninety 
head — heads of cattle. 10. I do not know which of the two books I 
like the best — better. 11. This — these kind of apples is better than those. 
12. He is the elder — eldest of the boys. 13. We were going at the rate 
of forty mile — miles an hour. 14. A — the lion shall eat straw like the 
— an ox. 15. Which is the best — better of the two? 16. This — these 
sort of expressions should be avoided. 17. A — the dog is a faithful 
companion. 18. You will always find those — that kind of people there. 

Exercise 38 

Correct the following sentences (Some are correct) : 

1. Goldsmith, the poet and the novelist, died in 1774. 2. I do 
not like that sort of a machine. 3. There is no metal so useful as iron. 
4. He is the most active of all his companions. 5. Do you know 
what kind of an apple this is? 6. He is better known than any other 
man in this city. 7. She has an active and an energetic mind. 8. This 
expression is more preferable than that. 9. A large and a small house 
occupied the lot. 10. The secretary and treasurer do not agree on 
the subject. 11. China has a greater population than any nation on 
the globe. 12. Solomon was a wise and good king. 13. What manner 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 85 

of man is he? 14. James is taller than any member of his class. 
15. Washington, the statesman and the soldier, died at Mount 
Vernon. 16. New York is larger than any city in the United States. 
17. He was a great and a good man. 18. What kind of a typewriter 
have you? 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 

262. Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. 

1. Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est; 
as, fast, faster, fastest; late, later, latest. 

2. Many adverbs are compared by prefixing more and 
most; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely; eagerly, more 
eagerly, most eagerly. 

3. Some adverbs are compared irregularly: 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

well better best 

ill, badly worse worst 

much more most 

forth further furthest 

little less least 

Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding ly; as, slow, 
slowly; probable, probably. 

Cautions 

263. Do not use two negatives to express negation. 
Example : I don't want anything. (Not I don't want 

nothing.) 

264. Do not use from before whence, thence, hence, as it 
is implied in these words. 

Example : Whence came he? (Not From whence came 
he.) 

265. Good is an adjective and should not be used as an 
adverb. 

Example: He did the work well. (Not He did the 
work good.) 



86 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

266. Position of the Adverb. Adverbs should be so 
placed that they will clearly express the meaning intended. 
Never put between a word and its modifiers anything 
that can steal the modification. Thus, in the sentence, 
"I should like to see you very much/' very much is so 
placed that it modifies to see, whereas it should be so placed 
as to modify should like. Thus, "I should like very much 
to see you." 

1. When an adverb modifies the meaning of an intransi- 
tive verb, it should generally follow the verb. 

Examples: We walked rapidly. He speaks distinctly. 
A few adverbs, however, such as ever, never, seldom, often, 
etc., generally precede it; as, "We often go to the city." 
"We seldom go to the country." 

2. W T hen an adverb modifies the meaning of a transitive 
verb, it generally precedes the verb on account of the 
fact that the object follows it, although in short sentences, 
the adverb may follow the verb. 

Examples: He gladly accompanied me to the theater. 
He wrote the letter carefully. He uttered the words slowly 
and distinctly. He willingly gave her all the money that 
she asked for. 

3. When an adverb modifies the meaning of a verb 
phrase in the active voice, it follows the first auxiliary; 
but when it modifies the meaning of a verb phrase in the 
passive voice, it immediately precedes the principal verb. 

Examples : He will undoubtedly have finished before you 
arrive. He will surely have forgotten it by that time. 
It can be readily proved. The matter can be easily adjusted. 

Exercise 39 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. I only saw your brother for a moment. 2. I wish only to order 
fifty copies at this time. 3. I am prepared to tell him what I think 
of him publicly. 4. I am pleased to see you always. 5. "The Spirit 



ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB 87 

of Laws" was only completed when the author was sixty years of 
age. 6. He never will know the truth in the matter. 7. I am ready 
to avow often that I never shall undertake such a task again. 8. Do 
you take the medicine the doctor gave you regularly? 9. I scarcely 
ever remember to have had a rougher ride. 10. I don't want nothing. 
11. From whence came he? 12. She never goes nowhere. 13. His 
last trip was to Mexico, from whence he was never destined to return. 
14. The bill was only confirmed by a majority of one. 

ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB 

267. When a word relates to the predicate by denoting 
the manner of action, it should be an adverb; but when 
it expresses some quality or condition of the subject, it 
should be an adjective. Nearly all verbs express action 
of some kind and are, therefore, followed by adverbs to 
show the manner of the action ; as, "The physician felt the 
patient's pulse carefully; i. e., with care or in a careful 
manner. A few verbs, however, such as seem, smell, taste, 
feel, o.ppear, look, sound, become, do not express action, and 
these are followed by adjectives expressing a condition of 
the subject; as, "The milk tastes sour." "I feel bad." 
"We arrived safe;" i. e., "We arrived in good condition." 

Verbs that express action may, when the sense requires 
it, be followed by an adjective expressing a state or con- 
dition of the subject; as, "He stood firm." "The child 
sat still." "The moon rose bright." 

Exercise 40 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. He acted different — differently from his brother. 2. The flowers 
smell sweet — sweetly. 3. You do not write plainly — plain enough. 
4. Doesn't she look beautiful — beautifully in her new dress ? 5. He has 
a remarkable — remarkably clear intellect. 6. How strange — strangely it 
seems here! 7. He acted strange — strangely. 8. This pen does not 
write good — well. 9. Walk as quiet — quietly as possible. 10. That is 
easier — more easily said than done. 11. I always feel awkward — awk- 



88 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

wardly in their presence. 12. I do not feel good — well this morning. 
13. You must speak more distinct — distinctly. 14. The goods arrived 
safe — safely. 15. He did the work very satisfactory — satisfactorily. 
16. He did not act proper — properly. 17. It is considerable — consider- 
ably cheaper to ship the goods by freight. 18. I feel bad — badly. 
19. He is exceeding — exceedingly sorry. 

MISUSED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 

Apt, liable, likely. — Apt implies a natural fitness or 
tendency; as, "He is an apt pupil." "He is apt to catch 
cold." Likely refers to a contingent event regarded as 
probable and usually favorable ; as, "An industrious person 
is likely to succeed." Liable refers to a probable event 
regarded as unfavorable ; as, "He is liable to punishment 
for his misconduct." 

As — as, so— as. — So is used with as in comparing un- 
equals; as, "He is not so tall as his brother." As is used 
with as in comparing equals ; as, "He is as tall as I." 

Almost, most. — Almost means nearly; as, "It is almost 
time to go." Most means the greatest number, quantity, 
or degree ; as,. "Most of the boys are already here." 

Continual, continuous. — Continual means repeated fre- 
quently ; as, "The continual rains have done much damage." 
Continuous means unceasing action; as, "The continuous 
falling of the water has worn the rocks away." 

Creditable, credible. — Creditable means that which re- 
dounds to one's credit ; as, "He did this work in a creditable 
manner." Credible means worthy of belief ; as, "The report 
is hardly credible.' 7 

Elder, eldest; older, oldest. — Discriminate carefully in 
the use of these words. Elder and eldest are correctly ap- 
plied only to persons of the same family ; as, "John is the 
eldest son." Older and oldest are used of both persons and 
things, without restriction ; as, "He is the oldest inhabitant." 
"This is the oldest house in the city." 



MISUSED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 89 

Eminent, imminent. — Eminent means distinguished, prom- 
inent; as, "He is an eminent person." Imminent means 
impending, threatening; as, "He is in imminent danger." 

Exceptionable, exceptional. — Exceptionable means open 
to exception; objectionable; obnoxious; as, "His conduct 
was exceptionable." Exceptional means uncommon; unu- 
sual; as, "We had an exceptional experience." 

Farther, further. — Farther expresses actual distance; as, 
"How much farther have we to go?" Further means in 
addition to, more in detail ; as, "We shall go further into 
the matter." Further is sometimes used as a verb; as, 
"I will do what I can to further the interests of the business." 

Fewer, less, smaller. — Fewer refers to number; as, 
"There were fewer callers today than yesterday." Less 
refers to quantity; as, "They harvested less grain today 
than yesterday." Smaller refers to size ; as, "He is smaller 
than his brother." 

Formally, formerly. — Formally means in a formal man- 
ner ; according to established rule or form ; as, "a formal 
introduction." Formerly means in time past ; as, "He was 
there formerly.' 7 

Good, well. — Good is an adjective and should never be 
used as an adverb ; as, "He played well today," not "He 
played good." Well is used both as an adjective and 
an adverb; as, "He did weir' (adverb). "He looks well" 
(adjective). 

Hardly, scarcely. — These words are not strictly synon- 
ymous. Hardly expresses degree ; as, "He is hardly well 
enough to go yet." Scarcely refers to quantity; as, "We 
have scarcely enough paper to last us through the week." 

Healthy, healthful, wholesome. — Healthy means possess- 
ing health. Healthful means conducive to health. Whole- 
some applies to what one eats ; as, "He is a healthy person, 
lives in a healthful climate, and eats wholesome food." 



90 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Human, humane. — Human has reference to mankind; 
as, "To err is human" Humane means kind ; as, "His 
conduct was humane." 

Intelligent, intelligible. — Intelligent means distinguished 
for intelligence ; marked by intelligence ; sensible ; showing 
knowledge or understanding ; as, "an intelligent person ;" 
"an intelligent reply." Intelligible means capable of being 
understood; as, "an intelligible report." 

Latest, last. — Latest means the last up to this time; as, 
"Have you read the latest edition of The Ladies' Home 
Journal?" Last means final; as, "The last of the Barons." 
Say, "Have you read his Latest (not last) book?" 

Partially, partly. — Partly is preferable to partially in the 
sense of "in part," or "in some degree or measure," since 
partially also means "with unjust favoritism;" as, "The 
work is partly (not partially) done." 

Practical, practicable. — Practical means useful, opposed to 
theoretical; as, "practical knowledge." Practicable means 
capable of being accomplished with available means; as, 
"The plan appeared to be practicable" 

Real, really, very. — Real is an adjective, meaning gen- 
uine. Say, "The fruit is really good, or very good (not 
real good)." 

Respectfully, respectively. — Respectfully means in a re- 
spectful manner ; as, "The boy behaved respectfully toward 
his teacher." Respectively refers to persons or things thought 
of singly, in the order designated; as, "The books belong 
to John, Henry, and James, respectively." 

Exercise 41 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 

1. You are looking good — well today. 2. There were fewer — less 

people present today than yesterday. 3. Communication by wireless 

telegraphy seems a practical — practicable scheme. 4. Webster was 

an imminent — eminent statesman. 5. Some of the reports are hardly 



MISUSED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 91 

credible — creditable. 6. The cold was so intense that we could hardly 
— scarcely endure it. 7. Bananas are more healthy — healthful — 
wholesome when they are thoroughly ripe. 8. He did the work good — 
well enough to suit me. 9. He was formerly — formally notified today 
of his appointment to the position for which he had formally — formerly 
made application. 10. Paris is not as — so large as London. 11. I 
drove farther — further than you did today. 12. The work was very 
credibly — creditably done. 13. He is the oldest — eldest boy in school. 
14. There are no less — fewer than ten volcanoes in Mexico, each having 
an elevation of more than twelve thousand feet. 15. He is not apt — 
likely — liable to return tonight. 16. The lawn looks as good — well 
as I expected. 17. Edison's inventions are chiefly of a practical — 
practicable kind. 18. The place in which he lived was very healthful — 
healthy. 19. I am almost — most as tall as my brother. 20. Scarcely 
— hardly one in ten could write his name. 21. We are creditably — 
credibly informed that he has succeeded in his venture. 22. You are 
apt — likely — liable to lose on that investment. 23. He may not have 
as — so much money as you, but he has as — so much ability. 24. I 
do not feel good — well today. 25. Formerly — formally postage rates 
were much higher than they are now. 26. The world demands men 
who are fitted practically — practicably for its work. 27. Riding is a 
healthful — healthy — wholesome exercise. 28. The missionaries were 
in imminent — eminent peril. 29. I think it is likely — apt — liable to 
rain tonight. 30. He was most — almost frozen. 31. My older — elder 
brother came home today. 32. It was a credible — creditable perform- 
ance. 33. Does the candy taste good — well? 34. He could hardly — 
scarcely finish the work in time to catch the train. 35. His conduct 
in the affair was so exceptional — exceptionable that his employer dis- 
charged him. 36. His mind is sound ; his body, healthy — healthful. 
37. They interrupted me continually — continuously while I was 
writing, so that I could not work continually — continuously. 38. James 
is not as — so old as John. 39. He is partially — partly to blame in the 
matter. 40. Most — almost everybody believes in some form of re- 
ligion. 41. This is a real — really fine day. 42. John, James, and Henry 
received respectfully — respectively ten, twelve and fifteen votes. 43. His 
language was not intelligible — intelligent. 44. He is an apt — a likely 
student. 45. Have you read the latest — last number of "The Saturday 
Evening Post?" 46. I have nothing farther — further to say. 47. They 
required him to send in a formal — former application. 



92 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS 

268. Care should be exercised to use appropriate prep- 
ositions. 

Following are some of the most important combinations : 

Accompanied by persons or lower animals, with inanimate 
objects. 

Accordance with. (Not to.) 

Adapted to a thing, for a purpose, adapted from a pro- 
duction. 

Agree to a, thing proposed, with a person, on or upon 
something determined. 

Arrive in a large city, or in a country, at a small place. 

Beside means by the side of; besides means in addition to. 

Between refers to two things or groups of things ; among 
to more than two. 

By usually denotes the agent ; with, the instrument. 

Compare with in quality, to for illustration. 

Conform to; in conformity with. 

Correspond with (by letter), to similars. 

Die of disease. 

Differ with in opinion, from in quality or appearance. 

Different from. (Not to or than.) 

In denotes position within ; into denotes entrance. 

Suitable to one's station, for a purpose. 

Exercise 42 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 
1. The jury disagreed between — among themselves. 2. Come in — 
into the room and sit down. 3. I was at — in New York when it hap- 
pened. 4. He died with — of fever. 5. The children divided the apples 
between — among themselves. 6. Put it in — into the desk. 7. The prop- 
erty was divided among — between the two boys. 8. He was accom- 
panied by — with his staff. 9. In accordance to — with your order, we 
sent your books today. 10. He is especially adapted to — for this work. 
11. He adapted himself to — for the circumstances. 12. Do not compare 
me with — to him. 13. I differ from — with you in regard to this matter. 



MISCELLANEOUS MISUSED WORDS 93 

14. You differ with — from him in appearance. 15. He was killed by — 
with lightning. 16. He went in — into the house. 17. Who besides — ■ 
beside you was there? 18. We could not agree, about — on the matter. 
19. I agree with — to the proposition. 20. We shall arrive in — at New 
York at three o'clock. 21. He arrived in — at America on the 
first day of May. 22. Life in the country is different than — from — to 
what it is in the city. 23. Put some coal in — into the scuttle, and take 
it in — into the house. 

MISCELLANEOUS MISUSED WORDS 

Accept, except. — To accept means to take what is offered ; 
to agree; as, "Please accept this as a gift from Mary and 
me." "I accept your proposition." To except means to 
leave out ; as, "We will take all except this one." 

Adapt, adept, adopt. — To adapt means to change; to 
remodel ; to make suitable ; as, "The mind adapts itself 
to a difficult problem as the eye adapts itself to darkness." 
An adept is one who possesses a high degree of skill ; as, 
"He is an adept in all the details of his trade." To adopt 
means to accept or to receive as one's own; as, "They 
adopted the child." "We adopted a new scheme to increase 
our sales." 

Affect, effect. — To affect means to influence, to act upon ; 
as, "He was greatly affected by the death of his friend." 
To effect means to accomplish, to bring about; as, "It is 
not best to effect too many changes at this time." Affect, 
as a noun, meaning affection, is rarely used. Effect, as a 
noun, means result, achievement; as, "What effect did the 
medicine have?" 

Aught, ought, naught. — Aught is a noun, meaning any- 
thing. Ought is a verb, implying duty. Naught is a noun, 
meaning nothing. 

Cite, site. — Cite means to mention by name ; to summon ; 
as, "He cited his authority." "He was cited to appear in 
court." Site means location ; as, "Has the site for the new 
building been selected?" 



94 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Compare with, Compare to. — Compare with is used to 
determine the relative merits; as, "He compared his work 
with mine." Compare to means to liken one thing to another ; 
as, "Christ compared the sinner to lost sheep." 

Complement, compliment. — Complement means that which 
completes ; as, "The complement of a verb completes the 
meaning." Compliment means praise, to praise; as, "He 
complimented me on my work." 

Confident, confidant. — Confident is an adjective, mean- 
ing bold, positive, self-reliant. Confidant is a noun, meaning 
a person to whom secrets are entrusted. 

Device, devise. — Device is a noun, and means something 
invented ; as, "We have a new device for folding letters." 
Devise is a verb, and means to plan ; to contrive ; to give 
by will ; as, "He devised a way by which the work could be 
done more quickly." "I devise and bequeath my property 
to my son." 

Lend, loan. — Loan is a noun, and should not be used as 
a verb. Thus, "We lend (not loan) money." What we 
lend constitutes a loan. 

Lightening, lightning. — The spelling of these words is 
often confused. Lightening means relieving of weight; 
as, "He lightened our burden." Lightning means a discharge 
of atmospheric electricity; as, "The tree was struck by 
lightning." 

Loose, lose. — Loose is an adjective, meaning unbound ; 
free ; not tight. Lose is a verb, meaning to be deprived of ; 
as, "The rubbers were loose, which caused him to lose one 
of them." 

Prophecy, prophesy. — A prophecy is a prediction; as, 
"His prophecy was not fulfilled." To prophesy means to 
predict or to foretell events ; as, "I prophesy that it will 
rain tomorrow." 



MISCELLANEOUS MISUSED WORDS 95 

Stationary, stationery. — Stationary means fixed ; as, "A 
stationary engine." Stationery means pens, paper, etc. ; as, 
"We have a good line of stationery." 

Summon, summons. — Summon is a verb, meaning to 
call or cite; to notify to come or appear. Summons is a 
noun, meaning a call; a legal citation to appear in court. 

Exercise 43 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and why: 

1. The loud crash affected — effected my hearing. 2. It is a com- 
pliment — complement to be permitted to share in the work. 3. Bodily 
exercise effects — affects all the organs of the body. 4. This is a very 
inferior article compared to — with that. 5. We decline to accept — ■ 
except your resignation. 6. It has had the affect — effect of crippling 
speculation, but it did not seriously effect — affect legitimate business. 
7. His remarks were a complement — compliment to what had been 
said. 8. You may be right for aught — ought I know. 9. We adapted — 
adopted a new plan for increasing the circulation of our paper. 10. This 
is not to be compared with — to that. 11. All accept — except one were 
readily sold. 12. What effect — affect did the election have upon business 
in general, and how did it affect — effect your business? 13. Have I 
done ought — aught — naught to give offense? 14. Compare this piece 
of cloth with — to that, and tell me which you think is the better. 
15. We wish you the complements — compliments of the season. 16. You 
should have one more ought — naught in your divisor. 17. Your 
prophesy — prophecy has not come to pass. 18. The consolidation of 
the two roads would affect — effect a great saving. 19. He is not 
adopted — adapted to such work. 20. I have done ought — aught — 
naught to give offense. 21. What affect — effect did the medicine have? 
22. Did he accept — except your offer? 23. He compared Grant with 
— to Napoleon. 24. Will you lend — loan me your knife? 25. He is 
sure to lose — loose money, because of his loose — lose methods of doing 
business. 26. How did the news affect — effect him? 27. Will he 
accept — except your invitation? 28. He invented a clever device — 
devise for stamping envelopes. 29. The adapted — adopted child did 
not readily adopt — adapt itself to its new surroundings. 30. I prophesy 
— prophecy rain for tomorrow. 



96 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS 
Don't Say Say 

I am afraid that he will I fear that he will fail, 
fail. 

Afraid is an adjective and should not be used as a verb. 

. He is an all-around man. He is an all-round man. 

He 'past me on the way He passed me on the way 
home. home. 

Past is an adjective or a noun and should not be used for passed, 
the past tense of pass. 

He used underhanded meth- He used underhand meth- 
ods, ods. 

Avoid underhanded, offhanded, secondhanded. The correct forms 
are offhand, underhand, and secondhand. 

If you are in need of the If you are in need of the 
goods, we will ship same at goods, we will ship them at 
once. once. 

Same is an adjective and should not be used for the pronouns it, 
them, etc. 

It has proven to be a good It has proved to be a good 

investment. investment. 

I can not accept of your I can not accept your 

favors. favors. 

I do not remember of his I do not remember his 

doing it. doing it. 

Of is superfluous after remember, accept, and recollect. 

I will not go without you I will not go unless you 
go too. go too. 

Without is a preposition and should not be used for the conjunction 
unless. 

I shall be very pleased to I shall be very much pleased 
see you. to see you. 

Avoid very pleased; say very much pleased or greatly pleased. 



MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS 97 

Don't Say Say 

He fell off of the wagon. He fell off the wagon. 

He is inside of the house. He is inside the house. 
Of is superfluous after off, inside, and outside. 

Please hand me them Please hand me those 
books. books. 

Them is a pronoun and should not be used as an adjective. 

He is well posted. He is well informed. 

People are informed; books are posted. 

You have no business to You have no right to do 
do that. that. 

He has a small-size kodak. He has a small-sized kodak. 

Try and come to see us Try to come to see us soon, 
soon. 

He has got a large farm. He has a, large farm. 

He has got to go home soon. He has to go home soon. 

Got is superfluous when possession or obligation is expressed. 

You may go providing you You may go provided you 
will return soon. will return soon. 

Providing is a participle and should not be used for the conjunction 
provided. 

I do not know if this will I do not know whether this 
suit you. will suit you. 

I do not know as he will go. I do not know that he will 

go. 
// and as should not be used to introduce noun clauses. 

I do not know but what he I do not know but that he 
did it. did it. 

Use but what only when the meaning is but that which; as, "I have 
none but what (but that which) he gave me." 

No other but this way was No other than this way 
open. was open. 

Than, not but or except, should be used after other, otherwise, or 
else. 



98 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Don't Say Say 

I could not hardly talk. I could hardly talk. 
There isn't but one left. There is but one left. 
Avoid the incorrect use of hardly, scarcely, and but with negatives. 
It is no use to do that. It is of no use to do that. 
He is unworthy the posi- He is unworthy of the po- 
tion, sition. 

He is home today. He is at home today. 

Do not omit a preposition that is necessary to the grammatical 
construction of the sentence. 

It will go a long ways to- It will go a long way to- 
ward establishing harmony, ward establishing harmony. 

Exercise 44 

Correct the following sentences (Some are correct) : 
1. We will give you a good size order. 2. I doubt if he will come 
tonight. 3. That isn't hardly fair. 4. Them peaches are delicious. 
5. I have no fear but what he will recover. 6. They are here for no 
other purpose but to render just such service. 7. He is a long ways 
from home. 8. His hat was blown off his head. 9. We will try and 
ship the goods this week. 10. We will not agree to such a proposition 
without we are assured that we shall not lose. 11. I don't hardly 
know if he will come. 12. Time has proved that he was right. 13. I 
can not remember of having heard him mention the subject. 14. We 
will get the goods off at once providing you give us references. 15. We 
are sorry that we haven't got the goods you ordered. 16. We are in 
need of a good all around office man. 17. The time has past for such 
favors. 18. Please let us have a remittance, as we have got to pay 
some heavy bills this week. 19. We shall be very pleased to assist 
you. 20. He is said to be well posted. 21. I can not see but that 
you have as good right to it as he has. 22. As your account is passed 
due, we shall be glad to receive a check for same within a few days. 
23. Is your father home today? 24. You will find the book inside 
of the desk. 25. There isn't but one left. 26. I don't know as I 
can do better. 27. I am afraid that he will not recover. 28. He would 
not accept of our offer. 29. He had no business to go without asking 
permission. 



PART IV 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 

Clearness treats of the proper use and arrangement of 
words, phrases, and clauses. It is the first requisite of 
every sentence. A sentence may be grammatically correct, 
yet its elements may be so placed that the meaning can 
not be definitely determined, or the meaning conveyed may 
be entirely different from that intended. For example, the 
sentence, "I met your brother going to town yesterday," 
leaves one in doubt as to who was going to town. But 
when written, "On my way to town yesterday, I met your 
brother," or "I met your brother on his way to town," the 
meaning is perfectly clear. 

GENERAL RULE 

Words, phrases, and clauses should be placed as near as 
possible to the words they limit. 

Special Rules 

1. Place adverbs and adjectives where they will modify 
the word intended. 

Original : I should like to see you very much. 

Improved : I should like very much to see you. 

Original : We have a fine line of elegant children's suits at low 
prices. 

Improved: We have a fine line of children's elegant suits at low 
prices. 

Position of Only 

This word requires special care, for the reason that no 
other word in the English language is so often misplaced. 

99 



100 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

As a general rule only should be placed immediately before 
the word, phrase, or clause that it modifies. 

Thus, in the sentence, "I only saw your brother for a moment," 
only modifies saw, and conveys the idea that I saw him, but did not 
speak to him, while evidently the meaning intended is that I saw 
your brother only for a moment, no longer. 

When no ambiguity would arise (as at the end of sentences), only 
may be placed after the word it modifies; as, "He spoke to me only." 

2. Phrases and clauses, like words, should be so placed 
that they will convey the meaning intended. 

Original: He said that he visited one creamery that was manu- 
facturing a great deal of ice cream, in order to learn something about 
the business. 

Improved: He said that in order to learn something about the 
business, he visited one creamery that was manufacturing a great 
deal of ice cream. 

3. Place the relative pronoun as near as possible to its 
antecedent. 

Original: The fruit came in a small wooden box, which we ate. 

Improved : The fruit, which we ate, came in a small wooden box. 

When the meaning would not be obscure, the relative clause may, 
for smoothness, be placed at some distance from its antecedent; 
as, "He jests at scars, who never felt a wound." 

4. Place the participle as near as possible to the word 
it modifies. 

Original : I looked through a window, and saw a man, on my way 
home, reading a book. 

Improved: On my way home, I looked through a window and 
saw a man reading a book. 

5. Express clearly the subject of a participle. 
Original: Standing on the seashore, two vessels are seen moving 

in opposite directions. 

Improved: Standing on the seashore, / saw two vessels moving 
in opposite directions. 

6. Make the antecedent of personal pronouns clear. 
Original : The boy assured his father that he was right. 
Improved: The boy said to his father, "You are right." 
Or, The boy said to his father, "I am right." 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 101 

In sentences of this kind, when the antecedent can not be repeated, 
report the conversation in the form of a direct quotation. 

7. Place correlatives before the same parts of speech. 
Original : He not only gave me good advice, but he helped me 

financially. 

Improved: He not only gave me good advice, but helped me 
financially. 

8. The preposition should be repeated when its objects 
are separated by an intervening phrase, or by a verb and 
its object. 

Original: He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that 
helped him when he was poor and uninfluential, and John Smith 
in particular. 

Improved: He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that 
helped him when he was poor and uninfluential, and to John Smith 
in particular. 

The first sentence might be construed to mean that he forgets 
the gratitude that he owes to those that helped him and helped John 
Smith. The second sentence means that he forgets the gratitude 
he owes to those that helped him and the gratitude he owes to John 
Smith in particular. 

9. When two words connected by a conjunction are 
such as to require different prepositions after them, both 
prepositions should be expressed. 

Original : I had no confidence or respect for him. 
Improved : I had no confidence in or respect for him. 

10. When two or more infinitives are used in the same 
construction, the sign to should be repeated when they are 
separated by a number of intervening words. 

Original : It would have been no surprise to hear the bark of a 
raccoon, or see the eyes of a wildcat gleaming through the leaves. 

Improved : It would have been no surprise to hear the bark of 
a raccoon, or to see the eyes of a wildcat gleaming through the leaves. 

11. Repeat the article when the reference is to more 
than one person or thing, if the meaning would not other- 
wise be clear. 

Original : The secretary and treasurer shall be elected for a period 
of three years. 



102 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Improved: The secretary and the treasurer shall be elected for 
a period of three years. 

The first sentence implies that one person shall be both secretary 
and treasurer, while the second sentence implies that there are two 
persons, one secretary and the other treasurer. 

12. When that introduces the first of a series of noun 
clauses, it should be repeated before each member of the 
series. 

Original : He said that he would be here soon, and he would 
then take the matter up with us more in detail. 

Improved : He said that he would be here soon, and that he would 
then take the matter up with us more in detail. 

13. Avoid connecting unlike elements by a coordinate 
conjunction. 

Original : They began clapping their hands and to shout. 

Improved: They began clapping their hands and shouting. 

Original : As he had just returned home, and not wishing to engage 
in business for a time, he declined the position offered him. 

Improved : Having just returned home, and not wishing to engage 
in business for a time, he declined the position offered him. 

14. When a subordinate clause is introduced by if, 
when, as, while, though, although, etc., force is often gained 
by placing it before the principal clause. This is especially 
true in long sentences. 

Original : I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, 
and to show you the objects of interest in our city and the beautiful 
scenery in the neighborhood, if you were here. 

Improved: If you were here, I should be delighted to introduce 
you to my friends, and to show you the objects of interest in our 
city and the beautiful scenery in the neighborhood. 

15. In conditional sentences, the subordinate clauses 
should be kept distinct from the principal clauses. 

Original : The expectations of the parents are disappointed if 
the children do not work hard, and money is wasted. 

Improved : If the children do not work hard, the expectations of 
the parents are disappointed, and money is wasted. 

16. When the subject consists of a series of words, 
phrases, or clauses, force is gained by using some summar- 
izing word, such as these, all, etc. 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 103 

Original: Cotton and gold, banks and railways, crowded ports 
and populous cities are not the elements that constitute a great nation. 

Improved : Cotton and gold, banks and railways, crowded ports 
and populous cities — these are not the elements that constitute a 
great nation. 

17. Repeat the common subject of several verbs when 
any word comes between that is capable of being a subject. 

Original: I shall be disappointed if he does not fulfill his engage- 
ments with me, and will endeavor to make other arrangements. 

Improved : I shall be disappointed if he does not fulfill his engage- 
ments with me, and J shall endeavor to make other arrangements. 

18. Do not omit a principal or an auxiliary verb in one 
clause unless the form understood is the same as the form 
expressed in the other. 

Original : I shall feel, as I always have, that he is in the wrong. 
Improved : I shall always feel, as I have always felt, that he is 
in the wrong. 

Original : The flowers were in bloom, and the grass green. 
Improved : The flowers were in bloom, and the grass was green. 

19. Repeat any form of the verb to be when it is used 
as a principal verb in one clause and as an auxiliary in 
another. 

Original : She was the cynosure of all eyes, and admired by every- 
one present. 

Improved: She was the cynosure of all eyes, and was admired 
by everyone present. 

20. In making a comparison in the comparative degree, 
the person or thing compared should always be excluded 
from the class to which it belongs, by the use of other or 
some similar expression. 

Original: He is taller than any member of his class. 
Improved: He is taller than any other member of his class. 

21. In making comparisons in the superlative degree, 
the word other should not be used, because it would exclude 
the person or thing compared. 

Original: This paper has the largest circulation of all the other 
papers in the city. 

Improved : This paper has the largest circulation of all the papers 
in the city. 



104 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

22. Avoid the use of superfluous words. 

Original : I do not like it, but I know of no other alternative. 
Improved: I do not like it, but I know of no alternative. 

23. Avoid the use of inappropriate words. 
Original : We had an awfully nice time. 
Improved: We had a very nice time. 

Exercises 

Correct the errors in the following sentences according 
to the rules referred to by the figures in parentheses : 

Position of Adverbs and Adjectives 

(1) 

1. I only saw him once after that. 

2. I never expect to see him again. 

3. He is an unquestioned man of genius. 

4. He only offered me fifty dollars for it. 

5. His store is only open in the forenoon. 

6. The French nearly lost five thousand men. 

7. We only distribute them among our friends. 

8. I scarcely ever remember seeing one that I like better. 

9. The crown of England can only be worn by a Protestant. 

10. The Indians chiefly subsist by hunting and fishing. 

11. We scarcely have enough to supply our own immediate needs. 

12. He had almost gotten to the top when the rope broke. 

13. He stopped asking questions abruptly and left the room. 

14. He answered all the questions that were put to him quite 
readily. 

15. You can depend on his doing whatever he undertakes to do 
well. 

16. It is a prevalent notion that a man's character mainly is deter- 
mined by his environment. It would be nearer true to directly turn 
this statement around. 

17. The manufacture of sugar is only profitable when conducted 
on a large scale. 

18. He adds the amounts of all checks received during the day 
on an adding machine. 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 105 

Position of Phrases and Clauses 

(2) 

1. The earth looks as if it were flat on the map. 

2. He might be taken by anyone who met him as a robber. 

3. He went to town driving a flock of sheep, on horseback. 

4. The Britons at least fought as bravely as the Romans. 

5. The meaning is unmistakable of his presence here. 

6. Wanted — Twenty boys to weed onions, from ten to fifteen 
years old. 

7. He received a reward and the praise of all for his bravery. 

8. He bought the house in which he lives, for his own residence. 

9. He could see the ship gliding under full sail through a spy- 
glass. 

10. Wanted — A stenographer by a legal firm, who can also do 
collecting. 

11. Nature tells me I am the image of God, as well as the Scriptures. 

12. Teachers should try to repress the practice of throwing stones 
as far as possible. 

13. Please tell my father, if he is at home, I shall not hurry back. 

14. Everybody thought that this was destined to be a great city 
twenty years ago. 

15. She went on the stage, for which she had a strong inclination, 
to gain a living. 

16. When the cat came into the room, feeling tired, I laid aside 
my work and began to talk to her. 

17. You can tell what will be the level, whether higher or lower, 
of his future course, by the direction in which he is headed. 

Position of Relative Clauses 

(3) 

1. Did you take the book to the library, that I lent you? 

2. I called at the man's home who visited us some time ago. 

3. He is like a beast of prey, who is devoid of compassion. 

4. He needs no spectacles, that can not see; nor boots, that can 
not walk. 

5. Life with him has ended in a sad mistake, which began with 
such bright prospects. 

6. Thi? way will take you to a gentleman's house that hath skill 
to take ofi these burdens. 



106 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Antecedent of the Personal Pronoun 

(6) 

1. The boy promised his father that he would pay his debts. 

2. If fresh milk does not agree with the child, boil it. 

3. The farmer told his neighbor that his cattle were in his corn. 

4. The lad can not leave his father, for if he should, he would 
die. 

5. He at last found the key, locked the door, and went away, 
putting it in his pocket. 

6. He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an hour, 
he would return. 

Position of Correlatives 

(7) 

1. I will neither give you money nor favors. 

2. We must not only think of ourselves, but also of others. 

3. I am neither acquainted with the writer nor his works. 

4. She not only speaks English, but also French and German. 

5. You can neither hope for success in this course nor in the 
other. 

6. California not only produces gold in abundance, but quick- 
silver also. 

7. It will not merely interest children, but grown-up people too. 

8. This is not merely intended to interest people, but to instruct 
them. 

9. The good man not only deserves the respect, but also the love 
of his fellow beings. 

10. They not only drew from their experience of actual govern- 
ment, but from their wealth of knowledge of past history. 

OMISSION OF IMPORTANT ELEMENTS 

1. He tried the old and new method. 

2. I never have, nor never will agree to such a proposal. 

3. He may be successful in politics, as he has in business. 

4. We have a large and small dictionary for the use of students. 

5. He never has, and probably never will forgive me for deceiving 
him. 

6. Our editorial page will — as it always has — support any worthy 
cause. 



HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY 107 

7. The council has not now, nor never had the power to make 
such a law. 

8. The question has not, and probably never will be satisfactorily 
settled. 

9. He belongs to one caste, and the hewers of wood and drawers 
of water to another. 

10. It is one of the greatest misfortunes that have, or can ever 
happen to anyone. 

11. He ridicules the notion that truth will prevail; it never has, 
and never will prevail. 

12. He strongly insisted that the measure was unjust, and was 
opposed to the organization of labor. 

13. The old man said he was destitute of the means of subsistence, 
and had no money with which to purchase any. 

14. I will pardon him if he apologizes and will make reparation 
for the damage he has done. 

15. I was naturally grateful to the man who had once befriended 
me, and was well disposed toward the whole party. 

16. It is no use trying to make him see what he owes to Robert 
and the friends who preserved him in peril. 

17. Both in the country and the city, at his home and business, 
you will find him the same genuine friend. 

18. He said that he would be able to see us when he returns to 
the city, and go over the matter more fully. 

19. We hope that you have decided to go ahead with the work, 
and we may have the pleasure of hearing from you by return mail. 

Miscellaneous Errors 

1. I only recite once a day. 

2. I can not hardly endure it. 

3. Repeat the word over again. 

4. That word is wrong; erase it out. 

5. All the sentences are not correct. 

6. I should like to go with you very much. 

7. He had not scarcely a moment to spare. 

8. Iron is more useful than all the metals. 

9. Detroit is larger than any city in Michigan. 

10. He seems clearly to understand his business. 

11. Detroit is the largest of any city in Michigan. 



108 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

12. The children seemed to be dressed nearly alike. 

13. There, is no man who would be more welcome. 

14. This picture is an exact facsimile of the other. 

15. It is a good plan to adopt with new beginners. 

16. He seems to have more faith in us than his friends. 

17. This seemed to be the universal opinion of all men. 

18. I was not aware that you had been ill until yesterday. 

19. We do the largest business of any other firm in the city. 

20. Please report any inattention of the waiters to the cashier. 

21. The child was a poor little orphan boy without any parents. 

22. We never have and never will be forced into such a measure. 

23. The performance will take place at 2 p. m., Saturday afternoon. 

24. I saw my friend when I was in Chicago walking down State 
street. 

25. They soon had an entire monopoly of the whole trade of the 
country. 

26. The horses being tired, *they held a council and decided to 
go no farther. 

27. In one evening I counted a large number of meteors sitting on 
my piazza. 

28. As they were about to leave, they began to collect their things 
together. 

29. He said that he had heard nothing, and did not expect to 
before next week. 

30. He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an 
hour he thought that he had better go home. 

31. The moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scattered 
around, which appeared above the horizon. 

32. We import our coffee through our agents in New York, which 
is roasted and ground on the premises daily. 

33. The carriage stopped at a small gate which led by a short 
gravel walk to the house amidst the nods and smiles of the whole 
party. 

34. Pupils who have partly completed their courses elsewhere, 
and having satisfactory evidence of the fact, will be out in the ad- 
vanced classes. 



PART V 



PUNCTUATION 
CAPITAL LETTERS 

Rule 1. — The first word of every sentence should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Example: One's first duty is the one that lies nearest. 

Rule 2. — The first word of every line of poetry should 
begin with a capital letter. 

Example: For God hath marked each sorrowing day, 
And numbered every secret tear. — Bryant. 

Rule 3. — The first word of every direct quotation 
should begin with a capital letter. 

Example : Pope says, "Hope dwells eternal in the human 
breast." 

Rule 4. — The first word of every direct question should 
begin with a capital letter. 

Example : Ask yourself this question, Are you making 
the most of your time? 

Rule 5. — Every proper noun should begin with a capital 
letter. 

Example: Martha, John Quincy Adams, New York. 

Rule 6. — Adjectives derived from proper nouns should 
begin with capital letters. 

Example : American from America, English from Eng- 
land, Christian from Christ. 

Note 1. — When, by long usage, adjectives have lost all associa- 
tions with the nouns from which they are derived, they are not cap- 
italized ; as, stentorian from Stentor, herculean from Hercules. 

Note 2. — The names of religious sects should begin with .capital 
letters; as, Protestants, Catholics, Methodists, Baptists. 

109 



110 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Rule 7. — The words north, south, east, and west should 
begin with capitals when they refer to sections of the coun- 
try, but not when they refer simply to directions. 

Examples : The journal is circulated throughout the 
South and the Southwest. The wind is from the west. 

Rule 8. — The names of the days of the week and the 
months of the year should begin with capital letters. 
Examples : Monday, Tuesday, September, December. 

Note. — The names of the seasons should not begin with capital 
letters ; as, fall, winter, spring, summer. 

Rule 9. — The words street, lake, river, etc., should begin 
with capitals when used in connection with proper nouns. 

Examples: Main Street; the Hudson River; Lake 
Como. 

Rule 10. — Words representing important historical 
events, epochs of time, etc., should begin with capital 
letters. 

Examples: The Middle Ages; The Revolution. 

Rule 11. — When used as a part of a name, or applied 
to particular persons, titles of honor or office should begin 
with capital letters. 

Example : The address was delivered by Senator Dolliver. 

Rule 12. — In the titles of books, essays, etc., every 
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, and adverb should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Example: I enjoyed reading "The Man without a 
Country." 

Note. — The articles (the, a or an) should be written with a capital 
only when used as the first word of a title. 

Rule 13. — The words I and should always be written 
with capital letters. 

Rule 14. — The words Bible, Scriptures, and all names 
of books of the Bible should begin with capital letters. 



THE COMMA 111 

Rule 15. — All names of the Deity and personal pro- 
nouns referring to the Deity should begin with capital letters. 

Example : God has given the land to man, but the sea 
He has reserved to Himself. 

Rule 16. — Common nouns, when vividly personified, 
should begin with capital letters. 

Example: Come, gentle Spring. 

THE COMMA 
Series of Words or Phrases 

Rule 1. — Words or phrases used in a series in the same 
construction should be separated from one another by 
commas. 

Examples : Honor, affluence, and pleasure are his. To 
cleanse our opinions from falsehood, our hearts from malig- 
nity, and our actions from vice is our chief concern. 

Note. — When two words or phrases used in the same construction 
are connected by a conjunction, no comma is required; as, "Edu- 
cation expands and elevates the mind." 

Note. — In such expressions as "A beautiful red rose," no comma 
is used to separate the adjectives, for the reason that they are not 
in the same grammatical construction. Red modifies rose; beautiful 
modifies the expression red rose. 

Transposed Phrases and Clauses 

Rule 2. — Transposed phrases and clauses are set off 
by commas. 

Examples : When one has not a good reason for doing a 
thing, he has a good reason for letting it alone. Surrounded 
by familiar faces, he breathed freely again. 

Note. — When a transposed element is short and closely connected 
the comma may be omitted; as, "At noon we started on our way 
home." 

In the natural order, the subordinate clause follows the principal 
clause, and a phrase follows the word it modifies; hence, when a 
phrase or a subordinate clause precedes the word it modifies, it is a 



112 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

When a sentence begins with a preposition, a participle, or a sub- 
ordinate conjunction, it contains a transposed element. Subordinate 
clauses are usually introduced by if, when, while, as, since, where, 
though, until, etc. t 

Parenthetical Words and Phrases 

Rule 3. — Parenthetical words and phrases should be 
set off by commas. 

Example : The clouds seemed to float, as it were, lazily 
on the summer breeze. 

The following are among the words and phrases commonly used 
parenthetically: However, therefore, indeed, perhaps, too, of course, 
to be sure, in the first place, generally speaking, on the other hand, beyond 
question. 

Remark. — Some of these words are used as modifiers, and when 
so used, they are not set off by commas. Thus, in the sentence, 
"However hard he studies, he improves but slightly," however is an 
adverb modifying hard. 

Note. — Words and phrases standing at the beginning of the sen- 
tence, and referring to the sentence as a whole rather than to any par- 
ticular word, though not strictly parenthetical, are set off by commas ; 
as, "Well, how do you like it?" "To be sure, it is of little importance." 
Some of the words thus used are now, well, why, again, further, first, 
secondly, etc. 

Intermediate Expressions 

Rule 4. — Intermediate expressions should be separated 
from the rest of the sentences by commas. 

Examples : The soldier, from force of habit, obeys. No 
state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports. His story is, in several 
ways, improbable. 

Intermediate expressions are expressions that come between closely 
related parts of a sentence; as, for instance, between the subject 
and the predicate, between the parts of a verb phrase, or between 
the verb and its complement. 

If, however, the intermediate expression is restrictive, no comma 
should be used. Thus, in the sentence, "The tree by the garden wall 
was struck by lightning," the phrase by the garden wall is restrictive, 



THE COMMA 113 

since it restricts, or limits, the meaning of the word tree to one par- 
ticular object of its kind. 

Nouns in Apposition 

Rule 5. — Nouns in apposition, together with their 
accompanying modifiers, should be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas. 

Example: We, the people of the United States, do 
ordain and establish this constitution. 

Note 1. — A title following the name of a person should be separated 
from the name by a comma ; as, "W. W. Wheeler, Secretary." "The 
address was delivered by Rev. E. M. Mitchell, D. D., LL. D." 

Note 2. — When the noun in apposition stands alone or has only 
an article before it, no comma is required; as, "Paul the Apostle;" 
"the poet Milton." 

Note 3. — When a pronoun is used in apposition with a noun for 
emphasis, or in direct address, no comma is required ; as, "He him- 
self could not have done better." "Ye men of Athens." 

Nouns of Address 

Rule 6. — Nouns of address, together with their accom- 
panying modifiers, should be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas. 

Examples : Young man, you must not forget that talent 
is only long patience. You must not forget, young man, 
that talent is only long patience. Yes, sir, it was I. 

Compound Sentences 

Rule 7. — The members of a compound sentence, when 
short and closely connected, are separated by commas. 

Examples: Science tunnels mountains, it spans con- 
tinents, it bridges seas, and it weighs the stars. Every 
man desires to live long, but no man would be old. 

Note. — When, however, the members have commas within them- 
selves, the members should be separated by semicolons; as, "If we 
work upon marble, it will perish; if we work upon brass, time will 
efface it; if we rear temples, they will crumble into dust." 



114 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Adverbial and Relative Clauses 

Rule 8. — Adverbial and relative clauses, when restrict- 
ive, are not set off by commas, but when they present 
additional thoughts, they should be set off. 

Examples: You have done the work well, which is all 
I ask. He will be here in a few days, when we will take 
the matter up with him. 

Relative and adverbial clauses are of two kinds : restrictive and non- 
restrictive. 

A restrictive clause is one that restricts, or limits, its antecedent; 
as, "Bring me the book that lies on my desk." The clause that lies 
on my desk is restrictive, because it restricts, or limits, the antecedent 
book, by excluding all books that do not lie on the table. 

A nonrestrictive clause is one that introduces an additional thought ; 
as, "Bring me Success Magazine, which you will find on my desk." 
The clause, which you will find on my desk, is nonrestrictive, because 
it adds an additional fact, the sentence being equivalent to the two 
thoughts, "Bring me Success Magazine," and "You will find it on 
my desk." 

Omission of the Verb 

Rule 9. — When the verb is expressed in one member of 
a compound sentence and omitted in the others, a comma 
takes its place. 

Example : Our first object is to obtain knowledge ; our 
second, to make a proper application of it. 

Complex Subject 

Rule 10. — When the complex subject of a sentence ends 
with a verb, or is of considerable length, it should be sep- 
arated from the predicate by a comma. 

Examples : All that you do, do with your might. That 
a man thoroughly educated in youth, and who has ever 
since been in the habit of composing could make so gross a 
mistake through ignorance, is almost incredible. 



THE SEMICOLON 115 

Quotations 

Rule 11. — A quotation, or anything resembling a quo- 
tation, should be preceded by a comma. 

Examples : Patrick Henry began his great speech by 
saying, "It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of 
hope." The question now is, How shall we know which 
book to select? 

Ambiguity 

Rule 12. — A comma is sometimes necessary to prevent 
ambiguity. 

Example: To remain in one spot always, prevents the 
mind from taking comprehensive views of things. 

Words or Phrases in Pairs 

Rule 13. — When words or phrases are used in pairs, 
a comma should be placed after each pair. 

Examples : Honesty and sincerity, truth and candor, 
are enviable traits of character. The sunny morning and 
the gloomy night, the bleak winter and the balmy spring, 
alike speak to us of the Creator's power. 

Contrasted Words or Phrases 

Rule 14. — Words or phrases contrasted with each other 
should be separated by commas. 

Examples : We live in deeds, not years. There are 
few voices in the world, but many echoes. 

THE SEMICOLON 

Rule 1. — When the conjunction is omitted between the 
members of a compound sentence, they should be separated 
by semicolons. 

Example: The blue sky now turned more softly gray; 
the great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes; the east 
began to kindle. 



116 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

Note 1. — When the sentences are short and very closely connected, 
they should be separated by commas ; as, "The fire burns, the water 
drowns, the air consumes, the earth buries." 

Rule 2. — When the members of a compound sentence 
are subdivided by commas, they should be separated by 
semicolons. 

Example: Under the fierce winds, the pines bend their 
heads; and the mountain snow is swept away, forming 
immense heights, and hiding everything from sight. 

Rule 3. — The expressions namely, as, i. e., or that is, 
viz., etc., should be preceded by semicolons and followed 
by commas. 

Examples: We have five senses; namely, sight, taste, 
hearing, smell, and feeling. 

Rule 4. — When several expressions have a common 
dependence on a principal element, they should be sepa- 
rated from one another by semicolons. 

Examples : If we think of glory in the field ; of wisdom 
in the cabinet ; of the purest patriotism ; of the highest 
integrity, public and private; of morals without a stain; 
of religious feelings without intolerance and without ex- 
travagance, the august figure of Washington presents 
itself as the personation of all these. 

When the element upon which the several expressions depend 
comes at the beginning of the sentence, the expressions should be 
separated from it by a comma; when it is placed at the end of the 
sentence, it should be separated from the series by a comma and a 
dash ; as, "Science declares, that no particle of matter can be de- 
stroyed; that each atom has its place in the universe; and that, 
in seeking that place, each obeys certain fixed laws." 

THE COLON 

Rule 1. — The salutation in business letters is usually 
followed by the colon. 

Examples: Dear Sir: Gentlemen: 

Rule 2. — A colon should be placed before a quotation, 



THE PERIOD 117 

a specification of subjects, etc., when introduced by such 
expressions as this, these, that, as follows, etc. 

Example: The Declaration of Independence reads as 
follows: "When in the course of human events, it be- 
comes necessary for one people to dissolve the political 
bands which have connected them with another, and to 
assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's 
God entitle them, etc." 

THE PERIOD 

Rule 1. — A period should be placed after declarative 
and imperative sentences. 

Example : In every life the post of honor is the post of 
duty. 

Rule 2. — The period should be placed after every abbre- 
viated word. 

Examples: Ult., inst., prox., Rev. John L. Dwight, 
D. D., LL. D. 

Note 1. — When the first syllable of a Christian name is used as a 
substitute for the full name, no period is used; as, Ben, Tom, Dan, 
Will. 

Note 2. — The ordinal adjectives 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 23d, etc., are 
not strictly abbreviations, and they do not, therefore, require the 
period after them. 

THE INTERROGATION POINT 

Rule 1. — Every direct question should be followed by 
an interrogation point. 

Example: Are you satisfied with the way in which the 
work was done? 

Note 1. — When several questions have a common dependence 
on a principal clause, each question should be followed by an inter- 
rogation point, and the word following it should begin with a small 
letter; as, "Shall treachery triumph in this decision? shall robbery? 
shall assassination? shall murder?" 



118 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT 

Rule 1. — The exclamation should be used after an 
interjection or an exclamatory expression. 

Examples : Peace ! Peace ! Why dost thou question 
God's providence? What a beautiful night! 

THE DASH 

Rule 1. — A dash is used to mark a sudden or abrupt 
change in the construction of a sentence. 

Example : In the first place — but I will not discuss the 
matter further. 

Rule 2. — Parenthetical and appositive expressions are 
sometimes set off by the dash. 

Example : For two dollars — the cost of a theater ticket 
— you can secure this book. 

THE QUOTATION MARKS 

Rule 1. — Every direct quotation should be enclosed in 
quotation marks. 

Example : Henry Clay said, "I would rather be right 
than be president." 

Remark. — A direct quotation is one in which the exact words 
of another are used. It should begin with a capital letter, be set off 
by a comma, and enclosed in quotation marks. 

An indirect quotation is one in which the thought, but not the 
exact words, of another is used; as, "Clay said that he would rather 
be right than be president." An indirect quotation should not begin 
with a capital letter, should not be set off by a comma, and should 
not be enclosed in quotation marks. 

Note. — When a direct quotation is separated by intervening words, 
such words are set off by commas, and each part of the quotation 
is enclosed in quotation marks ; as, When Fenelon's library was on 
fire, "God be praised," said he, "that it is not the dwelling of a poor 
man." 

Rule 2. — The titles of books, magazines, essays, etc., 
should be enclosed in quotation marks or printed in italics. 



THE HYPHEN 119 

Examples: "The Ladies' Home Journal;" "Success 
Magazine," or Success Magazine. 

THE HYPHEN 

Rule 1. — An adjective modifier consisting of an adjec- 
tive and a noun should be hyphenated; as, an eight-mile 
drive ; a half-inch space ; a four-pound weight ; a forty-foot 
lot; ten-inch bolts. 

Rule 2. — When a noun and a participle are used as an 
adjective modifier, they should be connected by a hyphen ; 
as, money-making plans ; order-producing ideas. 

Rule 3. — When well is used with a participle to form an 
adjective modifier, it is joined to the participle by a hyphen ; 
but when used merely to modify a participle in the predi- 
cate, the hyphen is not used ; as, "A well-informed man," 
but "The man is well informed." 

Rule 4. — Certain combinations of words are sometimes 
used as an adjective, and when so used, they should be 
hyphenated; as, a made-to-order garment; an out-of-the- 
way place; ready-made clothing; well-to-do merchant; 
end-of-the-year rush; up-and-down motion; and I-told-you- 
so expression. 

Rule 5. — Two numerals expressing a compound number 
should be hyphenated ; as, twenty-two, forty-five, ninety- 
eight. 

Rule 6. — When fractions are expressed in words, a 
hyphen should separate the two parts; as, one-half, two- 
thirds, three-fourths. 

Rule 7. — The words half and quarter, when prefixed 
to a noun, should be separated from it by a hyphen; as, 
half-dollar, quarter-pound. 



